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Dutch American History in Several Settings: the AADAS and Other Visions
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Suzanne M. Sinke
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In Ethnic Options Mary Waters suggested that for many U.S. citizens of European descent, to be "ethnic" is a choice, embraced in some settings and ignored in others.1 There may be some limitations to that statement, but whether to join an ethnic history organization or not is definitely a choice. Ethnic history organizations offer members the opportunity for cultural and sometimes linguistic exploration, and a venue for in-depth studies that might be rejected or overlooked in other settings. Though such groups typically welcome participation by anyone, in practice, many participants trace their ancestry at least partially to the ethnicity in question.2 An ethnic history association serves, then, as a venue where one's ethnicity matters. This intense focus on one form of group identity to the (near) exclusion of others, reinforces a form of nationalism that scholars of migration challenge in many ways.3 It can also obscure the importance of race to ethnic history for European groups. |
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The case of Dutch American ethnic historical organizations illustrates another element to this story, because there is no single Dutch American group, but rather a number of organizations highlighting the history of people calling themselves Dutch who arrived (and departed) at various times in North American history. I begin then with an overview of the history of one Dutch American historical society, of which I am the president. Beyond that I describe some of the related organizations that dot the North American landscape with scholarship on Dutch Americans. The persistence of divisions related to chronology, audience, and degree of attachment to history as opposed to other areas of research are three key features of this story. |
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Logo of the Association for the Advancement of Dutch-American Studies
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ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF DUTCH-AMERICAN STUDIES | |
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The Association for the Advancement of Dutch-American Studies—AADAS—was founded in 1979 with the goal of encouraging research on North American Dutch immigrants and those of Dutch ancestry. It had its genesis among the members of a group called the Dutch American Historical Commission, which included persons affiliated with the Netherlands Museum, Calvin College, Hope College, Calvin Seminary, and Western Seminary, all institutions located in west Michigan, and all associated with the Dutch migration of the mid-nineteenth century through the turn of the twentieth century, and particularly with branches of Reformed Protestantism.4 AADAS took advantage of surging interest in immigration to fill a niche. |
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Dutch migration to North America existed from the colonial era through the present, but it divides into major migration movements with peaks in three separate centuries, with significant lulls featuring little migration between. These three peaks created populations that (at least in my view) share more in common with other contemporaries from Western Europe than with earlier or later migrant populations from the Low Countries. In other words, the invention of ethnicity finds evidence in the discontinuities of the descendants of the colonial Dutch with those who came later. "Dutch" can mean the descendants of: colonial elites, nineteenth century industrial workers and farm hands, or recent migrants who move their enormous dairy farms to less-regulated pastures.5 AADAS reflects that tension, for at times it includes a few devotees of colonial descendants, but more often it concentrates on the nineteenth and early twentieth century migrants and their descendants. For example, at least nineteen of twenty-three presentations at the 2005 conference and twenty-one of twenty-seven in the 2007 conference dealt with the nineteenth/early twentieth century group or its descendants.6 The post-World War II migration gains sporadic attention as well, though not nearly as sustained. |
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A second artifact of AADAS' foundation is the stress on Protestant Dutch life. This in part reflected the demographic distribution of the migrant group, because though the population of the Netherlands was more closely divided between Protestants and Catholics, Protestants were a significant majority of the nineteenth/early twentieth century migration to North America, and held a disproportionate role in developing Dutch American institutions in that era.7 AADAS institutional connections to two major Reformed denominational colleges and seminaries also meant the stress would come from those directions, as well as from the personal beliefs of some of the participating scholars. Though AADAS members have researched Catholic and Jewish Dutch individuals and settlements in North America, the balance is decidedly tipped towards Protestantism.8 Likewise, Dutch migrants and their descendants in Canada tend to get short shrift compared to those in the United States, though the demographics of migration would warrant more research above the border.9 The group announced plans to meet in Canada in 2009 in part to address this lacuna. |
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A third artifact of the timing of AADAS' foundation is the focus on one European ethnic group in the context of what people understood as immigration history at the time. Just as ethnic studies sought to challenge patterns of study by using race as the key variable, scholars of the Dutch, like most of those concerned with European migrations, looked to one another for ideas about migration and adaptation. Because much of immigration history examined the migrations to North America from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, AADAS fit into the general framework of the field. As scholars who read ethnic studies picked up the theme of race and the scholarly literature on whiteness grew, only the most academically inclined among AADAS tended to utilize the vocabulary and perspectives of white privilege. The tales of hard times in the log cabin in the woods or the sod house on the prairies, of working countless hours to succeed in business, of pious ministers and hardworking folks, left out many of the advantages that came with white skin and with the acceptance of Dutch colonial antecedents as one part of American heritage. |
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A fourth artifact of initial organization of AADAS is the stress on conferences and book-length publications. Because the affiliated organizations already sponsored museum exhibits, collected materials, and housed archives, AADAS concentrated more on writing history, and disseminating that information. Calvin College's Heritage Hall, which had major collections on Dutch Americans, began publishing Origins in 1983, shortly after AADAS began. This periodical centered on Dutch American life, particularly that associated with the Christian Reformed Church, and targeted a more general rather than a specifically scholarly audience. This became a publication outlet for many AADAS members. |
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AADAS took on the role of organizing biennial conferences open to all comers, and publishing a newsletter. To this day, these have remained the primary focus of the organization, though the publication record of the group has been spotty at times. In recent years both ongoing functions and publications gained a boost from the Van Raalte Institute, founded in 1993, as part of Hope College (the Reformed counterpart to Calvin). The Van Raalte Institute, with a bit of help from a former fellow, handled the selection, editing, and dissemination of the AADAS 2007 conference volume. |
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From the outset, AADAS meant to encourage scholarship, not just by university-trained historians, but also by others, from amateur historians to genealogists. Hence the mission statement included the call to "serve as a clearing house for persons who have a mutual interest in these subjects." University-affiliated scholars typically form the majority of the presenters at conferences, though by no means all. The immediate past president, for example, is an amateur historian who does regular archival research and publishes in local and regional venues. The audience at AADAS conferences is more mixed. At least for some of the plenary sessions and tours it will include a significant number of educated older Dutch Americans, folks who want to know more about great-uncle Gerrit. The audience includes those from the local area, scholars from various parts of the United States and to a lesser degree Canada, and recently a few individuals from the Netherlands. |
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Geography shaped AADAS as well. AADAS organized its first meeting in Pella, Iowa, and the second in Holland, Michigan, the two founding communities for nineteenth century Dutch immigration. Other cities related to the migration followed: in Iowa, Illinois, and Michigan. Two additional conferences, one in Middelburg in the Netherlands, and one in Holland, Michigan, gained the co-sponsorship of AADAS. In general, funding for conferences came primarily from registration funds and the current treasury, though at times the organizers obtained money from private firms as well as state and local humanities organizations. There has (as yet) not been any sustained fundraising for the group. |
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AADAS conferences typically ran for two days, with at least one tour of Dutch-American highlights in the landscape, a reading by a Dutch-American writer, and perhaps a genealogy session as part of the program, not to mention a reception featuring wine and Dutch cheese. In early years there were no competing sessions, though recently organizers opted for two parallel sessions for at least part of the conference. Holland, Michigan typically drew the largest audiences, in large part because of ongoing activities of the local historical groups who would then publicize the conference. At their height, conference sessions might draw 175 people, though thirty was more common. The organizers typically chose a theme and tried to solicit contributions around it with an eye towards publication, but other research could easily become part of the program as well. |
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After the conference the group disseminated—copied in early years—the presentations and sent them to members. Little if anything in the way of editing took place initially, and to this day there is no formal referee process in place. In more recent years, the papers were put together somewhat more professionally thanks to the computer technology at the Joint Archives of Holland or Heritage Hall at Calvin College, and the efforts of their staffs. The most recent volume editors also selected contributions around the conference theme and edited them more systematically for format and style. The volumes now include an index as well. |
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The AADAS Newsletter underwent a similar technological and content transformation. After a hiatus due to the retirement of the editor in the 1990s, it returned in better form, and now appears on a biannual basis. It continues to publish bibliographic notes on works of interest, notices of upcoming conferences, as well as AADAS calls for papers. Recent issues also profiled board members and some of the key related institutions. Reports or reviews of new books and organizational business fill out the pages. |
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In 2006, after much planning, AADAS launched a website, aadas.net. The conference paper compilations are now coming online, albeit in rather rough form. The group also produced a new brochure to help publicize the organization and its activities. Outreach, in other words, occupied the board's thoughts in recent years. To further that goal, in 2007 AADAS co-sponsored a lecture by a well-known Dutch author, Geert Mak, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Board members started considering more advertising. Needless to say, fund raising may become more important in the group's existence as these programmatic initiatives increase. |
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Organizationally, the AADAS executive board manages the ongoing activities of the group, though rarely, except at our biennial conference, do we meet. Initially the group had a president, vice-president, one person who served as both secretary and treasurer, and two members at large. A newsletter editor came on board quickly as well. To these posts the group has added a membership secretary. Four members-at-large now round out the list. The board nominates a group of candidates, and the membership, in a meeting that is part of the biennial conference, elects their choices. In practice, the staff at the Dutch heritage programs of the two denominational colleges do much of the clerical work that allows the organization to function. |
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AADAS has worked sporadically with other Dutch American groups, both history and interdisciplinary groups, as well as Dutch American cultural groups such as the Dutch Immigrant Society, which regularly reports on our activities, but AADAS has not worked effectively with pan-ethnic organizations such as the Immigration and Ethnic History Society. This, I see as one of the challenges for the future. Neither have we co-sponsored museum exhibitions, sessions at other conferences, or other similar opportunities. But then, we are a small group. |
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AADAS went from 55 dues-paying members in 1981 to 98 members in 1982. The numbers continued to climb for a time, and then fluctuated, contracting and expanding slightly depending on the success of the latest conference. In any case membership has held steady for a number of years somewhere between 150 and 200. As of mid-2007 there were approximately 165 members. Thus the group remained one of the smaller ethnic history organizations. Because the institutions with which we are associated have deep pockets and strong staffs, we are unlikely to face extinction soon, but without them we could be in deep trouble quickly. The strength of the group relies heavily on the board members. On the other hand, if the submissions for the 2007 biennial conference and for that of 2006 are any indication, there is a group of younger scholars now in the pipeline who want to promote what our new slogan reads: "sound scholarship to research and preserve our common history." |
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OTHER DUTCH AMERICAN ORGANIZATIONS | |
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AADAS was never alone in its charge to promote the history of Dutch Americans. The focus on the migrations of the last two centuries, however, distinguished AADAS from groups interested in those of Dutch ancestry from the colonial era, such as the Holland Society, which boasted a much older pedigree, from 1885.10 Both groups shared an interest in locating and disseminating information about their respective topics, and both included a significant contingent of amateur historians and genealogists in addition to academics. Apart from the time period of interest, AADAS shared some similarities with the current Holland Society, but it also differed in important ways. |
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A major difference between the groups is that membership in the Holland Society in New York was and still is limited to those who are descendants in a "direct male line of an ancestor who lived in New Netherland before or during 1675."11 As Dutch scholar Jacob van Hinte wrote in 1928, this was not just an historical society "for they set up a class organization whose membership was drawn from those in the higher ranks."12 At least in recent years the Holland Society provided a category of "Friends" that made it possible for others to gain access to the publications, genealogical assistance, and other benefits of association, though not to voting membership. This group made a point of including official representatives of the current Dutch government, from the queen to the local consul, in the Friends category. |
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Other local variations of the Holland Society, such as the Philadelphia chapter which began in 1892, also required colonial Dutch blood lines, as did the Society of Holland Dames, of the same period.13 The elitism, but not the colonial connections, became part of chapters elsewhere, including the Holland Society of Chicago, which began in 1895. For the Chicago group, Dutch ancestry from any time period was sufficient, and it attracted some of the most prominent descendants of nineteenth century migration as well.14 The requirement for proving ancestry meant the group promoted genealogy. As was common for the era around the turn of the twentieth century, this chapter also advocated for a positive image of the Dutch in United States history. The core New York Holland Society constituency continued its outreach of promoting Dutch American history throughout the twentieth century and beyond, even as other chapters such as that in Chicago waned. |
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A second major difference between the Holland Society and AADAS related to size, as some chapters of the Holland Society are close to the entire membership of AADAS. The Holland Society chapters illustrate a much more social function in many locations in recent years, with yacht races, winery tours, and concerts interspersed among reports of attending lectures on Dutch heritage, Dutch language instruction, or discussions with the Dutch consul in a particular location. Not surprisingly the Midwest chapter of the Holland Society most reflects the nineteenth-century connection, with members attending a local Dutch festival to watch wooden shoe dancers and street scrubbers.15 Attention to promoting Dutch American history more broadly, however, remains a secondary or even non-existent goal for some chapters. The New York chapter, on the other hand, embraced this goal from its outset, and has continued this into the present. |
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In the early years, from 1886 to 1929, the New York chapter of the Holland Society sponsored yearbooks on colonial Dutch topics. This organization began publishing De Halve Maen, a journal "illuminating the Dutch contribution to American history" in 1922.16 The glossy quarterly serves as an outlet for historical and folkloric information about the colonial Dutch presence. Articles on aspects of material culture, such as architecture, decorative arts, and agriculture, intertwine with scholarship on individuals and organizations of New Netherland, particularly those related to the Reformed Church and its luminaries. Later collections reprinted some of this information, in addition to adding other topics.17 |
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In 1974 the Holland Society partnered with the Library of the State of New York in Albany in the New Netherland Project. Under the direction of Dr. Charles Gehring, the project sought to translate and publish all seventeenth-century Dutch documents held in the Archives. The goal was both to make this information available to scholars of colonial history who did not read Dutch, as well as to make it accessible to a general public, in hopes this would "demonstrate the impact of the Dutch in American colonial history."18 Volume after volume rolled off the presses as the project participants worked their way through the voluminous papers. |
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The New Netherland Project added another dimension with the formation of the New Netherland Institute, a group designed to create interest in the project, disseminate information about the publications, and raise funds. The group published a quarterly newsletter, De Nieu Nederlandse Marcurius, with information on upcoming lectures and conferences on colonial Dutch topics.19 The New Netherland Project gained National Endowment for the Humanities support, and together with the New Netherland Institute continued in the task of disseminating colonial Dutch material to a wide audience through a web site. |
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The public outreach of the New Netherland Project (and AADAS) contrasts with another organization, the American Association for Netherlandic Studies (AANS), formed in 1982, around the same time as AADAS. AANS traced its origins to a group of Dutch language scholars who began meeting at the annual Modern Language Association meetings in the 1960s. The group started publishing a newsletter in 1975, and sponsored its first interdisciplinary conference in 1982.20 These two activities, the newsletter and conferences (with related publications), remain key components of AANS activities. AANS was and is more closely tied to an academic audience. As its website states: "AANS is a university-level organization that promotes the study of the language, literature, history, art history and general culture of the Low Countries."21 In contrast to the centrality of history to AADAS, AANS is more interdisciplinary, serving in particular as a mouthpiece for scholars of Dutch language and literature. |
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The AANS Newsletter reflects this audience, regularly presenting book reviews, exhibition reports, scholarship opportunities, news of summer Dutch language study programs, and reports of related conferences, in addition to news of its own interdisciplinary conference. Ethnic history, in other words, is peripheral at best. The same is true for the book-length publications. In the proceedings of the third interdisciplinary conference, for example, three of twenty-five articles dealt with Dutch American history, nine explored Dutch language issues, and ten handled questions of Dutch literature.22 In the subsequent volume, only one of twenty-five articles focused on the Dutch American history.23 AANS by no means discouraged participation by historians, but history as a discipline remained a minor part of most programs and publications. |
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The Canadian counterpart of AANS, the Canadian Association for the Advancement of Netherlandic Studies/Association canadienne pour l'avancement des études néerlandaises (CAANS/ACAEN), had its origins in the 1960s, gaining official incorporation in 1971, just before its U.S. counterpart. Because all the Canadian learned societies in the humanities and social sciences meet concurrently on an annual basis, CAANS could organize its annual meeting sessions in this context and thus coordinate interdisciplinary activities somewhat more easily than its U.S. counterpart. In addition, however, local chapters of CAANS organized topical conferences, most often on literary themes.24 In 1980 CAANS began a semi-annual publication, the Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies, which continues to this day. This journal provides articles on literature and art as well as North American and European History. As with AANS, the balance in terms of contents tends towards language and linguistics. In addition the group publishes a Newsletter, available primarily in electronic format since 2007.25 |
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Like AANS, CAANS sought to promote the teaching of Dutch language and culture in Canada, but in addition it fostered outreach through local chapters in various cities around the country. To this purpose, the local chapters often sponsored a variety of activities. In Montreal in the first half of 2005, for instance, the chapter organized a historical lecture by a scholar, another lecture by someone who had lived through the assault on Arnhem in the Second World War, a report on the experience of a prisoner of war in a Japanese work camp during the Second World War, a lecture on the current nominees for a poetry prize in the Netherlands, a film evening featuring a documentary in Dutch, and the annual chapter meeting in the form of a dinner at one member's home.26 The local chapters often united those of Dutch ancestry for a variety of activities. While the Dutch departments at U.S. universities sometimes organized similar activities, the scope of such activism in the CAANS chapter groups illustrated a different organizational model and the consequences in terms of public participation. |
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Yet another organization that shows some interest in the Dutch in North America is the Association for Low Country Studies (ALCS) in Great Britain and Ireland. This group began publishing Dutch Crossing: A Journal of Low Country Studies in 1977. The multidisciplinary journal with a scholarly focus presented articles in English about the Netherlands and Belgium, and the relationship of those countries to the English-speaking world.27 Twice a year Dutch Crossing would provide a mix of language, literature, history, and a variety of other subjects. The inclusion of translations, research reports, and other news, made this a rather mixed venue. Conference papers from the biennial conference of the ALCS constituted a regular feature. The Nederlandse Taalunie, or Dutch Language Union in the Hague, assisted with funding this publication, as it did with various activities related to language in North America (meaning both AANS and CAANS). In addition to Dutch Crossing, the ALCS published Crossways: Occasional Series, for books, and a biannual newsletter. ALCS sponsored an annual essay prize contest, with undergraduate and postgraduate categories, as well as research grants.28 It helped coordinate the "Student Days" where students at the nine universities in the U.K. and Ireland where Dutch was taught could come together and enjoy speakers and tours.29 Once again, Dutch American history might appear sporadically in these venues. |
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The Dutch colonial past also fell within the purview of the Society for Netherlandic History (SNH), a group that formed in the United States around the beginning of 2000. The SNH characterized its aim as providing a "forum where specialists of Dutch and Belgian history can present their work and exchange ideas."30 It sponsored three biennial conferences, with themes to promote discussion.31 At least one of the conferences resulted in a publication.32 As the name implied, however, the emphasis was on history in Europe more than in the colonial setting. The nineteenth century past remained outside this purview. |
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This overview by no means exhausts the groups which have at least passing interest in Dutch American ethnic history. Overall, AADAS fills a particular niche for the descendants of nineteenth and twentieth century Dutch American migrants and those who study this group. Several other groups work to promote Dutch language and culture in other ways, with a minor role for ethnic history as part of this. The Dutch government provides at least supplementary funds most consistently for language and literature studies. The Holland Society, despite its strong genealogical emphasis in early years, has become closer to a counterpart for AADAS in recent years with its promotion of Dutch North American colonial history, though it shows little interest in broadening that emphasis to Dutch migrants of later years. AADAS continues to rely heavily on the denominational colleges associated with Dutch American migrants of the nineteenth century. How long that focus can remain as many descendants of the fourth, fifth, and later generations come to the fore, will remain an important question. Some suggest that only the religious ties will remain, particularly because Dutch ethnicity remains an optional identity for many of those who could embrace it. Others see the optional identities tied to ethnic histories as one part of multicultural worlds. |
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NOTES
1 Mary C. Waters, Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
2 A rather negative impression of this connection appears in Paul Spickard, Almost All Aliens: Immigration, Race, and Colonialism in American History and Identity (New York: Routledge, 2007), p. xix.
3 See for example Dirk Hoerder, "Historians and Their Data: The Complex Shift from Nation-State Approaches to the Study of People's Transcultural Lives," and Matthew Frye Jacobson, "More 'Trans'; Less 'National'" both in Journal of American Ethnic History, Vol. 25, No. 4 (Summer 2006), 85–96 and 74–84 respectively.
4AADAS Newletter, Vol. I, July 1980, p. 1.
5 Werner Sollors popularized the term "invention of ethnicity" in his book of the same name, published in New York by Oxford University Press in 1989. Research on both colonial Dutch and nineteenth century workers is extensive. That on Dutch dairy farmers is only now coming into view: One paper at the 2007 AADAS conference dealt with this phenomenon. It remains largely the purview of non-historians.
6 AADAS conference brochures, 2005, 2007.
7 This stress on Protestantism remains a major puzzle for audiences in the Netherlands. Hans Krabbendam used the continuing strength of Dutch American Protestant religious institutions compared to absence of similar "Dutch" Catholic continuation as justification for this emphasis in his Vrijheid in het Verschiet: Nederlandse emigratie naar Amerika 1840–1940 (Hilversum: Verloren, 2006), introduction.
8 See Yda Saueressig-Schreuder, Dutch Catholic Immigrant Settlement in Wisconsin, 1850–1905 (New York: Garland, 1989); Robert P. Swierenga, The Fore-runners: Dutch Jewry in the North American diaspora (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994).
9 The placement of a book session on the 2005 AADAS program for the publication of a revised and translated version of Johan Stellingwerff's Iowa Letters: Dutch Immi-grants on the American Frontier (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2004), but no comparable session on Donald Sinnema's The First Dutch Settlement in Alberta: Letters from the Pioneer Years 1903–14 (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2005) hints at the division.
10 Information from the Holland Society home page, http://www.hollandsociety.org/, accessed June 29, 2007.
11 "Membership," http://www.hollandsociety.org/membership.html, accessed January 3, 2008.
12 Jacob van Hinte, Netherlanders in America, trans. by Adriaan de Wit (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1985 [Reprint, 1928],) p. 71.
13 Annette Stott, Holland Mania (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 1998), pp. 206–207.
14 Robert P. Swierenga, Dutch Chicago (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2002), pp. 529, 533.
15 "Calendar of Branch Activities," http://www.hollandsociety.org/branch_activities.html, accessed January 3, 2008.
16 "Publications of the Holland Society, http://www.hollandsociety.org/pub.html, accessed June 29, 2007.
17 For example Records of the Reformed Dutch Church of Bergen, NJ, appeared in several yearbook issues and then was reprinted in 1976 by Genealogical Publishing Co.
18 "About the New Netherland Project," http://www.nnp.org/nnp/index.html, accessed June 27, 2007.
19 "De Nieu Nederlandse Marcurius," http://www.nnp.org/nni/Marcurius/index.html, accessed January 3, 2008.
20 William Z. Shetter, "20 Years of AANS," AANS Newsletter, Vol. 58 (October 2002), 2–3.
21http://polyglot.lss.wisc.edu/aans/, accessed January 5, 2008.
22 Ton J. Broos, ed., Publications of the American Association for Netherlandic Studies: Papers from the Third Interdisciplinary Conference on Netherlandic Studies (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1988).
23 Margriet Bruijn Lacy, ed., Publications of the American Association for Netherlandic Studies, 3: The Low Countries: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1990).
24 A. P. Diereck, "History," http://www.caans-acaen.ca/Who/index.html, accessed January 5, 2008.
25 Basil Kingstone, "Editorial," CAANS/ACAEN Newsletter, December 2006.
26 "Reports from Chapters," CAANS/ACAEN Newsletter, August 2005.
27 "Dutch Crossing: A Journal of Low Country Studies," http://alcs.group.shef.ac.uk/publications/Dutchcrossing.htm, accessed June 29, 2007.
28 "Research Grants," http://alcs.group.shef.ac.uk/grantsandprizes/grants.htm, and "The ACLS Prize for Low Country Studies," http://alcs.group.shef.ac.uk/grantsandprizes/prize.htm, accessed June 29, 2007.
29 "Student Days," http://alcs.group.shef.ac.uk/studentdays/studentdays.htm, access-ed June 29, 2007.
30 "News: Society for Netherlandic History," De Nieu Nederlandse Marcurius, Vol. 16, No. 1 (February 2000), p. 1.
31 "Society for Netherlandic History," http://homepages.udayton.edu/~CarlsoMB/snh.htm, accessed June 29, 2007.
32 Wayne te Brake and Wim Klooster, eds., Power and the City in the Netherlandic World (Leiden: Brill, 2006).
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