| Book Review | The Journal of American History, 94.1

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| Book Review | The Journal of American History, 94.1 | The History Cooperative

Book Review

Middle Passages: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787–2005. By James Campbell. (New York: Penguin, 2006. xxx, 513 pp. $29.95, ISBN 1-59420-083-1.)
Historically, the "middle passage" refers to the traumatic journeys of millions of enslaved Africans en route to the new world. In this study, however, James Campbell draws attention to a multiplicity of "middle passages" that black Americans took as they returned to Africa for validation of their history, identity, and culture. Over the past two hundred years, Campbell argues, black Americans have been driven to Africa by the circumstances of their experiences in America. The resultant emigrations underscore the profundity of acculturation and transplantation, and illuminate, as well, a certain ambivalence in black American relations with, and attitudes toward, both America and Africa.	1
For blacks alienated from America, Africa became the terrain on which they attempted to negotiate their relations with America. They hoped to utilize Africa's social, economic, cultural, and political resources to develop and demonstrate a capacity for progress and civilization they had been denied and thus establish a strong case for inclusion and equality in America.	. . .

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