A Short History of Anti-Americanism and Terrorism: The Turkish Case

Nur Bilge Criss

Throughout the past century, anti-Americanism crescendoed and then subsided in rough proportion to the global power projected by the United States. In Turkey, anti-American protests reached a new level of intensity in the late 1960s when U.S. actions challenged Turkey's sovereignty. While subtle acts of resistance came from the military and other government officials, most protests came from ideologically motivated leftists who clashed with equally dogmatic ultranationalists and Islamists. The ensuing battles resulted in the most prolonged era of terrorist violence in modern Turkish history. Thus, anti-Americanism in Turkey can serve as an instructive case study. In this essay I conclude that anti-Americanism stemmed from Turkish efforts to preserve sovereignty as well as from the ideological commitments of the Turkish Left.	1
Terrorism, the political use of violence to provoke fear, was a different matter. It was reactionary and ethnocentric, concerned with internal conflicts and policies as well as transnational ones. In view of its deep roots and its lethality, some observers suggest that terrorism's causes are irrelevant: Political violence need only be dealt with through punitive legal action. In contrast, in this essay I argue that U.S.-Turkish relations formed part of the context in which terrorism arose and that the history of those relations thus provides cautionary lessons on the sources of anti-Americanism and the terrorism with which it is sometimes associated.	2
Anti-Westernism in Turkey has differed from that elsewhere in the Middle East. The Turkish republic, as an heir to the Ottoman Empire, has a long tradition of statehood. Although it fought repeated wars against European imperialism from 1911 to 1922, its heartland was never colonized. While Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Turkish republic, was in power (1919–1938), he insisted on independence and sovereignty, but he did not hesitate to seek the "assistance of the Western powers for the peaceful development of Turkey. . . . Modern Turks present an unusual phenomenon—an oriental nation looking to the occident for help in the regeneration of their country."1 For once, an "oriental" country had the freedom to do so, guided by its age-old foreign policy orientation toward the West. Extremely jealous of its sovereignty, the young republic was careful in not allowing ties to any foreign power to monopolize its foreign policy until the 1950s. Then dependence on the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in general and the United States in particular began to cause repercussions within Turkish society.	3
Sovereignty and Anti-Americanism
When Turkey became a member of NATO in 1952, the end of its military and diplomatic isolation brought new issues of sovereignty to the fore. Turkey regarded NATO as an extension of the United States and put few restraints on American action: "the American way was to be exalted as the model . . . little need was felt to insert stringent qualifications on the scope of U.S. activity in Turkey."2 In turn, the Americans used their freedom of action in Turkey for purposes other than simply containing Communism, such as gathering intelligence from within the Soviet Union.	. . .