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Back to the Future with Textbooks: Using Textbook Passages from the Past to Help Teach Historiography


John J. DeRose
Whitefish Bay High School, Whitefish Bay, Wisconsin

ON MANY OCCASIONS, I have noticed students turning to the back of their textbooks to read about the way individuals and events from their lifetime are portrayed. My students have also frequently asked me about the way students in the future will learn about present-day political leaders and events. Consequently, I have tried to help students see how the past has been written and interpreted over time. I have used my own experiences of growing up at the end of the Cold War and asked other individuals from our community to speak to my students about their personal experiences of the past and present events to explain how our understanding of history has developed over time. 1
      Old textbooks are another resource for teaching about the evolution of historical interpretation. Some libraries contain collections of U.S. history textbooks spanning multiple years and some schools even keep older textbooks used in past years. Recently, I used a book by Kyle Ward entitled History in the Making: An Absorbing Look at How American History has Changed in the Telling Over the Last 200 Years, which includes passages from U.S. history textbooks over the past two centuries on select historical topics, to show my students how textbooks have interpreted the past over time. The following lesson reveals my use of these textbook passages to engage my students in historiography. 2
   

A Lesson in Interpreting the Past

 
      In this lesson, students were asked to use History in the Making to compare and contrast textbook passages from the 1950s to the present about President Truman's decision to fire General Douglas MacArthur and the rise and fall of Joseph McCarthy to understand both changes and consistencies in the way the past is interpreted over time. The lesson lasted between one and two fifty-minute class periods. This lesson had three main goals: 1) to have students compare and contrast the currently adopted textbook's account of President Truman's decision to fire General Douglas MacArthur and the rise and fall of McCarthyism with past textbook accounts of these same events since the 1950s; 2) to challenge students to identify patterns in the way events are interpreted over time; and 3) to encourage students to draw conclusions about why some historical interpretations change or stay the same over time. My students use McDougal Littell's The Americans: Reconstruction to the 21st Century, where these two events are covered in Chapter 18. Students also read the excerpts from History in the Making (pp. 298–305) which include textbook accounts from 1954, 1961, and 1995 about Truman's decision to fire General MacArthur and additional accounts from 1967, 1974, and 1999 about Joseph McCarthy. After students finished reading all of the textbook accounts, they wrote answers to the following questions:

  1. How are the textbook accounts from 1954, 1961, 1995, and the present about Truman's firing of General MacArthur similar and different?

  2. How are the textbook accounts from 1967, 1974, 1999, and the present about Joseph McCarthy and McCarthyism similar and different?

  3. Why do you think historical interpretation of some individuals and events changes over time?

  4. Why do you think historical interpretation of some individuals and events experience more or fewer changes over time?

  5. Will these readings affect the way you read and understand historical or current events and individuals from your textbook or other sources differently in the future? Why or why not?

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I started the lesson by telling students that they all must offer a verbal response to these questions in order to receive full credit for this assignment. To make sure every student commented on the passages, I instructed the students to each write their name on a slip of paper, which was to be placed in a small box only when they had offered a substantial response for the day. Then I led students in a discussion of the five questions. 4
   

Class Discussion of Textbook Accounts

 
      Students' responses to the questions and the classroom discussion in my U.S. history course about these textbook passages were extremely valuable and provide some insight into the type of ideas generated from this activity. To begin with, students observed a few differences between all of the textbook passages on Joseph McCarthy. Most of these differences involved information that was included or excluded in the various accounts. For example, one student pointed out that, unlike the other textbooks cited, the 1974 passage incorporated "Eisenhower's dislike for McCarthy" by including a whole paragraph devoted to this aspect of McCarthyism. Another student mentioned that the 1999 textbook passage did not mention that McCarthy was eventually censured by the Senate. At the same time, a student also suggested that the 1999 account, unlike the other passages, detailed specific charges made by McCarthy that President Roosevelt had "deliberately sacrificed the navy at Pearl Harbor and had 'sold out' to the Soviet Union at Yalta."1 5
      However, the students readily noticed that there were mostly similarities in the description of Joseph McCarthy and McCarthyism in the four textbook passages they read dating back to 1967. As one student observed, all of the textbook passages "agree that McCarthy was a bully and very irresponsible." A number of other students mentioned that the textbooks passages portrayed McCarthy as a "fraud" who "ruined the lives" of many people. For instance, the 1967 textbook passage said that McCarthy acted "with no regard for truth"2 and the 1974 account explained that McCarthy used "unscrupulous methods and careless accusations."3 The current class textbook reiterated these same sentiments by stating that McCarthy took "advantage of people's concerns about communism"4 and defining McCarthyism as "the unfair tactic of accusing people of disloyalty without providing evidence."5 6
      While the passages about Joseph McCarthy suggested that some historical interpretations do not necessarily change greatly over time, the textbook accounts about Truman's firing of General MacArthur clearly indicate that our perceptions of the past can involve very significant alterations. Written when this controversial event was still in recent memory, the 1954 account avoids criticism of MacArthur or Truman and in a detached tone simply stated that the "MacArthur incident influenced public opinion in America and affected the outcome of the election in 1952."6 In textbook passages from subsequent years, Truman gradually emerged as having made the right decision. For instance, the 1961 account explained that after the event, a committee of military and civilian leaders suggested that "a limited war was the wisest course for the United States to pursue in Korea."7 Students' current textbook went even further to explain that "public opinion swung around to the view that Truman had done the right thing"8 and that "MacArthur did indeed fade away."9 7
      Many students readily noticed this change in perspectives about Truman's firing of MacArthur between the 1954 textbook version and the passages from 1961, 1995, and the present day. One student said that their textbook "makes MacArthur out to be the bad guy." Another student noted that the 1995 textbook passage showed "a more critical view of MacArthur and his stubbornness." While some students pointed out that there were some similarities between all of the passages in their explanation of the basic "arguments between MacArthur and Truman and America's support for MacArthur," students were much quicker to point out the way the passages progressively turned against MacArthur and defended Truman's decision. 8
      These noticeable differences in the passages detailing Truman's firing of MacArthur combined with the minor modifications in the textbook accounts of Joseph McCarthy set the stage for a phenomenal discussion where students offered a wide range of explanations about why historical interpretation of some individuals and events experience change or conversely, undergo seemingly little or no change. Figure 1 includes some of the factors that my students came up with to explain the effects of historical interpretation over time.

Figure 1: Some Factors Affecting Historical Interpretation

Long Term Consequences

The results of individual or collective efforts may not be fully understood for years. Over time, historians can get a clearer picture about the impact of people and events.

Distanced Memories

Emotion and feeling can influence our perceptions of current individuals and events. Over time, these sentiments may decrease and allow for greater objectivity in making historical judgments.

Current Events

Our perceptions of current leaders and the decisions they make as well as present-day social and political situations can impact the way we view and make judgments of past individuals, events, and decisions.

New Information or Knowledge

Details about a person or event that were previously unknown or only known by a few can surface and alter or more strongly reaffirm our perceptions of the past.

Changes in Societal Values

As society places greater or less emphasis on certain issues or becomes more accepting or even less tolerant of various groups or conditions, we might reinterpret the past to conform to these new social standards.

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      To begin with, one student pointed out that "people might disagree with what a president does at the time but later realize that the outcome may be for the best." Another student defended this stance by arguing that Truman may have very possibly avoided a third World War in the long-term by restraining MacArthur and deserves credit for guiding us through a difficult crisis without leading to a catastrophic conclusion. To help students take their analysis further, I added that people might also agree with an individual at the time, but realize that the long-term consequences may be for the worst. To support this assertion, I told students that Joseph McCarthy had public support while he was making his accusations, but people eventually realized that he unnecessarily destroyed the lives of many innocent people. 10
      In conjunction with the way long-term consequences can affect our perspectives of the past, a student also pointed out that current events affect historical interpretation. This student noted that our perceptions of the past "change over time based on current events of the time the book is written." This student mentioned that with the fall of communism, Presidents like Truman might receive more positive attention in recent textbooks for their successful efforts to contain the Soviets' influence. To solidify and expand on this student's comments, I pointed out to my students that Harry Truman left the presidency with a low approval rating, but in recent years has been considered by a number of historians as one of our nation's finest presidents. Undoubtedly, Truman's actions to contain communism have contributed to his popularity in the post-Cold War era. At the same time, I explained to students that Truman's decisiveness under immense pressure and willingness to accept the fallout for any of his decisions have also earned him praise in recent years among critics who have charged presidents and political leaders with using polls to make decisions, avoiding firm stances on issues, or refusing to take blame.10 11
      Similarly, I helped students understand how current events have also impacted our ongoing understanding of McCarthyism by pointing out that with recent fears of terrorist activity in the U.S., Joseph McCarthy has reemerged as a national symbol of the dangers associated with making accusations against individuals without adequate evidence and political decisions motivated by hysteria. 12
      When I asked students to continue discussing factors that might affect historical interpretation, another student surmised that we are able to gain a broader and less reactionary perspective of an event or individual as our memories become distanced from the situation or person. She wrote, "Right after a particular event emotions are high because there has not been sufficient time to reflect" on an event. Echoing this statement, another student argued that since MacArthur was seen by many as a World War II hero, it is not surprising that any textbook passages written close to this time period would be hesitant to portray him in a negative fashion. However, this student went on to say that as MacArthur's heroism became a more distant memory, it also became easier to criticize him and his decisions. Similarly, in discussion, I added that it was initially very difficult to criticize McCarthy in the midst of widespread fear over Soviet spies and Communist influence. Any American history textbook that might have included McCarthy and his actions prior to his downfall in 1954 may have likely avoided criticism of him. However, as McCarthy could not defend his allegations, he eventually became any easy target for rebuke and condemnation. 13
      A few other factors affecting historical interpretation also surfaced during our class discussion. For instance, one student pointed out that "new information being found to either support or disprove" a historical viewpoint could affect our understanding of the past. In fact, students speculated that one main reason the re-telling of McCarthy's story has not changed much is because no new evidence has emerged to exonerate him and instead, the overwhelming evidence available still reaffirms that Joseph McCarthy was irresponsible and reckless.11 Another student mentioned that "societal values change" over time, and consequently, topics that may have been ignored or interpreted according to the standards of previous times may be viewed differently today. This factor can be seen most clearly in older textbook passages from History in the Making that ignore diverse groups or include racist and very stereotypical portrayals of people. 14
      Finally, students shared some fascinating ideas about how their new understanding of historiography from these textbook passages might affect the way they read their textbooks or other historical sources in the future. One student commented that she now knows that she "can't take things at face value due to the biases that even exist in textbooks." Another student went further and observed that the activity made him consider that "what is written in our current textbook may be interpreted in a completely different way in the future." 15
      Perhaps the most intriguing comments that were made at the end of our discussion involved the way current events in my students' lives, like the war in Iraq, might be interpreted over time. No matter what their point of view has been on a subject like the Iraq war, many of my students said that this activity caused them to re-examine the event from the perspective of how it might be interpreted in the future. In doing so, a number of them commented that our class discussion opened their minds to considering perspectives that they had previously dismissed or ignored. As one student put it, "in the future we may see things differently when we are not caught up in the fear and hysteria of the time." This was a great conclusion to our class discussion as I reminded the students that our conversation does not imply that we cannot have any confidence in the historical judgments and interpretations we offer in the present. However, we must be keenly aware that history is an ongoing story constructed by humans and susceptible to new interpretations over time. 16
   

Extended Teaching and Assessment Activities

 
      The following activities could also be used by teachers for further discussion, enrichment, and assessment:

  1. The teacher may want to simply check students' written answers to the five discussion questions and assess their thoughts and analysis. It might be helpful to give students an opportunity to revise their answers after the discussion.

  2. History in the Making also includes textbook passages about other events during the Cold War, such as the Marshall Plan and the Bay of Pigs invasion. Students could read these passages, compare and contrast any changes in the way these events have been interpreted by textbooks, and synthesize their findings with what they discovered from the passages on Truman's firing of MacArthur and Joseph McCarthy, discussing the reasons behind these changes.

  3. Students could interview their parents, other relatives, or family friends about their recollection of a historical event and then compare their interview notes to the way the textbook passages in History in the Making and their current textbook present this same event. Students could highlight and attempt to account for the similarities and differences between the way the person they interviewed remembered the event and the way textbooks retold the event.

  4. Students could imagine and write about the way a historical event they have studied might appear in a textbook 20 or 50 years from now. Students could focus on one factor that affects historical interpretation highlighted in Figure 1 and explain how this factor may or may not affect the retelling of the event in the future.

  5. Students could do research outside of the textbook on individuals involved with the Korean War or McCarthyism, such as Harry Truman, Douglas MacArthur, Matthew Ridgway, Syngman Rhee, Kim Il Sung, Joseph McCarthy, Joseph Welch, or some of the individuals McCarthy accused of being disloyal. After students complete their research, they could write a position paper discussing how these people or groups might feel about the different textbook accounts from this activity. Then, they could represent or role-play these individuals in a classroom panel discussion about their views on the different textbook passages. Students should pay particular attention to differing perspectives of the textbook accounts and the support provided by individuals in the panel discussion to defend their positions.

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The Importance of Teaching Historiography

 
      Throughout my 13 years of teaching history, I have made a concentrated effort to help students see their textbooks as an important but also limited resource in their understanding of history. While textbooks can often provide very useful background information about historical events and individuals, I believe that teachers have an obligation to show students the subjectivity involved in making historical judgments and interpretations. Educational scholars have highlighted the importance of using history to teach students about drawing conclusions, and engaging students in historiography can be a great way to help students become critical historical thinkers.12 18
      The general student level of attention during our discussion and the number of individual students willing to continue our conversation even after the bell rang suggested that they truly enjoyed the opportunity to examine their textbooks from a different perspective. History in the Making was a great resource in my classroom and a wide variety other resources also exist to assist teachers with helping students go back to the future to become historical thinkers. 19


Notes

1.  Kyle Ward, History in the Making: An Absorbing Look at How American History has Changed in the Telling Over the Last 200 Years (New York: The New Press, 2006), 304.

2.  Ibid., 302.

3.  Ibid., 303.

4.  Gerald A. Danzer, J. Jorge Klor de Alva, Larry S. Krieger, Louis E. Wilson, and Nancy Woloch, The Americans: Reconstruction to the 21st Century (Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell, 2005), 620.

5.  Ibid., 620.

6.  Ward, 299.

7.  Ibid., 300.

8.  Danzer, Klor de Alva, Krieger, Wilson, and Woloch, 614.

9.  Ibid., 614.

10.  See Evan Thomas, Jonathan Darman, Arian Campo-Flores, Holly Bailey, and Richard Wolffe, "The Truman Primary," Newsweek 149 (May 2007): 24–28. Also see David McCullough, interview by Brian Lamb, transcript of "Booknotes" series, 19 July 1992, <http://www.booknotes.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1109>.

11.  See Thomas C. Reeves, The Life and Times of Joe McCarthy: A Biography (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1997).

12.  See Sam Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2001).

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