Laura Suchan | Memento Mori: Bringing the Classroom to the Cemetery | The History Teacher, 42.1

Memento Mori: Bringing the Classroom to the Cemetery

Laura Suchan
Oshawa Community Museum and Archives, Ontario, Canada

AS EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR of a small community museum, I am always seeking new and innovative ways to link the museum and its collection with the local community. Our museum is located in southern Ontario, on the shore of Lake Ontario, and comprises three restored homes dating from the period 1835–1849. Located in close proximity to the museum is an early cemetery containing the remains of some of the first settlers in our community. Museum staff felt the proximity of the cemetery to the museum provided an exciting opportunity to introduce the study of thanatology, the study of everything that has to do with death and dying, including cemeteries and gravestones, to high school students.¹

Initially, when our cemetery program debuted in the early 1990s, it was greeted by educators with some skepticism. What, if anything, could be learned from old cemeteries and how could it be linked to the curriculum? We soon realized it was necessary to educate the educators, as much as the students, as to the value of our historic cemeteries. Our program was designed to emphasize primary historical research and the importance of gravestones as primary historical resources. As a tool for historical inquiry, gravestones are more than just memorials to the deceased. Instead they are a form of expression and provide insight into aspects of nineteenth- century life, on a community level, as well as a national level. Program participants are encouraged to complete further research on various themes and topics from their cemetery exploration in the local library, archives, or museum. By the end of the program, it is expected students will have used methods of historical inquiry to gather, analyze and organize research material and communicate the results of this research in a variety of ways.² The purpose of this article is to encourage educators to view gravestones and cemeteries for more than just genealogy and to provide some suggestions for areas of instruction, inquiry, and research.

All you dear friends who come to my grave to see
Prepare yourselves to follow me.
Prepare yourselves, make no delay
For I in haste was called away.
Epitaph 1867

Our "classroom" for this program is known as the Oshawa Harbor Pioneer Cemetery. The earliest dated grave marker was that of Nancy Henry, buried in 1816, but there is speculation that burials may have occurred as early as 1800. Some of the first settlers in Oshawa are buried in this cemetery. These include members of the Henry, Robinson and Guy families (all associated with the museum) as well as Benjamin Wilson, the earliest settler in Oshawa. Originally, the cemetery was located just east of the present day Oshawa Harbor, but in the early 1970s the cemetery was removed to facilitate harbor expansion. The remains of 195 persons and 62 grave markers were removed to their new location on a bluff, just a short walk from the Oshawa Community Museum.³

The program introduces students to the importance of gravestones and how they can be utilized in the study of history, on a local as well as national scale. As a way to identify gravesites, gravestones (may) contain biographical information relating to birth and death dates, surnames, familial relationships, and cause of death. By the late eighteenth/early nineteenth century, gravestones began to take on a typical form being three feet high, two feet wide, and either of the slab or headstone variety.⁴ In most cases, some form of design was applied to the upper portion of the stone with the biographical data of the deceased placed below. An epitaph may appear in the lower portion of the stone. In some cases, a small maker's mark can be found in the lower left corner indicating where the stone was carved and the initials or full name of the carver.

Gravestones as Primary Resources

Our program also encourages students to view gravestones as a form of expression, capable of providing insight into social history and life in the nineteenth century. On the surface, the visual imagery of the iconography is a decorative element, an early example of folk art expression. Some motifs are quite intricately carved and from an artistic standpoint represent themes relating to life and death. For example, motifs utilizing depictions of hands represent an expression of a relationship, usually between the living and the dead. Clasped hands signify a symbol of greeting with the hope of meeting a loved one again. In Ontario, most motifs can be accommodated within seven categories of manifestations: floral, classical revival, hands, animals, figures, miscellaneous, and none (absence of a motif).⁵

Cemetery Visits: Manners and Advice

Some things to keeping mind when conducting the cemetery program:

Prepare students for visit to the cemetery by discussing any cultural misgivings and fears.
Prepare a code of conduct prior to visit; no boisterous play, wandering away from the tour, or other inappropriate behavior.
Always ask permission from caretakers or owners before bringing a group to the cemetery.
Remind students not to lean on gravestones. Soft soil and age can make stones very unstable.
Do not take rubbings of the stones. Pressure and pencil marks are damaging to stones.
Contact the local historical society or museum prior to your visit. Often there will be someone able to lead a tour of the cemetery.

Below the surface, however, there is a deeper, more symbolic function to the motifs—one which parallels contemporary thoughts in religious philosophy and popular culture. Allan Ludwig, in Graven Images, illustrated how iconography changed to reflect societal and, in particular, religious views.⁶ He argued the transformation of the death's head (skull) motif into a softer, cherub-like symbol indicates a shift in Puritan religious values to focus on the life to come rather than the life departed.

Popular culture trends could best be illustrated with the classical revival motifs, manifesting as columns, urns, and willow trees, appearing in Ontario cemeteries by the 1830s.⁷ The popularity of these designs can be linked to an interest in anything Greek or Roman sweeping North America during the late eighteenth/early nineteenth century. Greek inspired designs can be seen in everything from architecture to jewellery and wallpaper designs.

The students use the Gravestone Inventory Sheet (see Appendix I) to categorize the stones based on theme and design and discuss specific meanings of the motifs as they relate to life and death.⁸ Completing the Gravestone Inventory Sheet introduces the student to the wealth of historical data found on the gravestones, including biographical data and in some cases familial relationships, fraternal affiliations (Masonic orders, International Order of Oddfellows, etc.), and vocation. They have an opportunity to sketch or photograph motifs (no rubbings allowed!). Other information such as epitaph, type of stone, measurements, and carver identification is also recorded on the inventory sheet.

Suggested Activities – Popular and Religious Culture

Have students look for Greek-inspired designs in the community. Look for buildings and have the students research the history of the building and when it was built.
Compare motifs to modern symbols. Are today's popular trends illustrated in modern motifs? Why or Why not?
Examine the epitaphs. How do they change over time?

Suggested Activities – Stonecarving Techniques

Visit a monument carver and compare today's techniques with the historic ones.
Have students compare samples of materials and try their hand at working with them.
Identify how many different carvers are represented in the cemetery (or section).
Graph how many stones each carver made.
Try to identify carvers based on their technique and style.
Research an individual carver or monument company.

Another important component of any cemetery study is the role played by the carvers of the stones. In the early days of settlement, with little demand, stones were carved as required by blacksmiths, coopers, or farmers. All work was done with a chisel and mallet and the spacing of the letters can appear crude when compared to later examples. Often, there is no epitaph or motif present. With the establishment of professional stone carving, the degree of intricacy and craftsmanship grew, which is reflected in the stones. Professional carvers were known to have established businesses in several American cities by the early 1700s and the "Stone Cutter of Boston" was producing stones as early as 1652.⁹ Here in Oshawa, it was not until late in the nineteenth century that a professional carver was in business. Prior to this, stones were professionally carved in neighboring towns and brought to Oshawa. Some carvers became known for particular designs and techniques. By using the maker's marks, students have a lot of fun matching particular designs with their respective carvers. Further research in the museum links the maker's marks with advertisements in local newspapers, photos, and business information. Some students have produced reports based on these businesses and even tracked how far some early stones traveled to reach Oshawa. An activity suggested by the Peterborough Centennial Museum and Archives recommends procuring samples of the different types of materials used in gravestones and having students try working with them. In this way, students can compare the qualities of the material and learn about the techniques chosen by the carvers.¹⁰

Suggested Activities – Artistic Expression

Graph popularity of motifs according to design or decades.
Research fraternal or vocational symbols.
Examine statuary and discuss meanings.
Explore why designs might differ from one cemetery to another.
Research any unusual motifs.
Create symbols for modern ideas.

Suggested Activities – Community Research

Have students choose a name from a gravestone and research the person. Write a narrative about the person.
Find a familiar name and have students research the person's contributions to the community.
Research the history of the cemetery.
Write an obituary for a chosen figure.
Research funeral customs.

On an artistic level, gravestones offer insights into popular culture for they were chosen by, and for, all classes of society. Motifs were carefully selected by the carver or the deceased's family members to convey messages about religion or society depending on the style. In an era when illiteracy was common, carvers relied on symbols to convey messages of mortality and spirituality to those settlers unable to read verse. Themes relating to life, death, and the hope for everlasting life are portrayed on the stones. In this way, motifs served a practical function for the living as well as serving as memorials to the dead.

Many of the names on the gravestones represent some of the earliest settlers in our community and are recognizable to the students from the names of nearby streets, parks, businesses, schools, and buildings. In our program, students choose a name from one of the gravestones and, utilizing both primary and secondary sources, craft a historical narrative about the person. This assignment has led students to write about local industry, prominent people, events, epidemics, natural and man-made disasters, and cultural and ethnic enclaves in the city. In this respect, students explore the historical connections to the community while learning research techniques.

Photograph of Thomas Henry's gravestone. Pioneer Cemetery, Oshawa, Ontario. Laura Suchan

One of the largest gravestones in the cemetery belongs to Thomas Henry, a prominent minister and Harbor Master in early Port Oshawa. Thomas and his second wife, Lurenda, lived in one of the three now-museum buildings and both currently rest in the Harbour cemetery. After the visit to the cemetery the students return to the museum where they can examine parts of the Thomas Henry collection, including official records of his time served in various community posts, private letters, contemporary newspaper reports, death notices, family Bibles, photographs, and his memoir written by a daughter in law. Cemetery data helps us verify, and link with, available primary and secondary resources.

More than 15 years after its creation, the cemetery program remains one of the most popular educational offerings at our museum and we are pleased to say many other museums in our province have followed suit by designing similar studies. The primary focus of our cemetery program continues to foster an appreciation on the part of teachers, students, and citizens for the wealth of information which can be attained from a cemetery. Often, students arrive at the museum with many misconceptions, believing cemeteries to be places more akin to horror stories than research. They leave with a profound respect for these places as a valuable resource for studying history and the roots of their community. Our belief is students who are taught respect and appreciation for cemeteries will be less likely to commit acts of vandalism.

Notes

^1.� The Center for Thanatology Research and Education Inc., "All You Wanted to Know about Thanatology," http://www.thanatology.org/home.html (accessed January 26, 2007).

^2.� Ministry of Education, "The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 11 and 12: Canadian and World Studies" (2005), http://ww.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/curriculum/secondary/canworld910curr.pdf (accessed June 22, 2007).

^3.� Laura Suchan, "The Oshawa Harbour Pioneer Cemetery" (Oshawa: Oshawa Historical Society, 1995), 1.

^4.� Slab stones are placed flush against the ground, headstones are upright tablets placed at the head of the grave.

^5.� Laura Suchan, "Memento Mori: Classifying Nineteenth Century Ontario Gravestones" (Toronto: York University, 1999), 22.

^6.� Allan Ludwig, Graven Images (Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1966), 34.

^7.� Classical Revival symbols appear much earlier in U.S. cemeteries particularly on the east coast where such motifs were firmly entrenched by the War of 1812

^8.� The Gravestone Inventory Sheet was designed with Ontario cemeteries in mind. For another example see Teacher's Resources, Colonial Williamsburg, http://www.history.org/history/teaching/organiz2.cfm.

^9.� Harriet Forbes, Gravestones of New England (New York: Da Capo Press, 1967), 22.

^10.� Sean Rodman et al., "Cemetery Studies: A Guide for Teachers" (Peterborough Centennial Museum and Archives, 1996), 18.

Appendix I

Nineteenth-Century Gravestone Inventory Sheet

Graveyard: _________________________________________________

Location: __________________________________________________

Section: ___________ Row: __________ Reference #: ____________

Date Recorded: ______________ H: ______ W: ______ D: _____

Photo Taken: ___________________________________________

Name on Stone: ________________________ Sex: m____ f ____

Date of Death: __________________ Age at Death: ____________

Relationships: __________________________________________

Carver Identification: ____________________________________

Type of stone: Tablet__ Flat Tablet__ In Cairn__ Other: __________

Primary Motif
Floral:
Classical Revival:
Hands:
Animals:
Figures:
Miscellaneous:
None:
Undetermined:

Secondary Motif
Floral:

Other:

Remarks (Include motif location):

Inscription (include shape of stone, information on motif, etc.)

Nineteenth-Century Gravestone Inventory: Popular Motifs

This list will aid you in filling out the information on the Nineteenth-Century Gravestone Inventory Sheet.

Floral: In Ontario, the most prevalent motif style. For the purpose of this inventory floral, is considered a primary motif only when it is represented on the stone—consider it a secondary motif if located elsewhere. Representations may include single flowers, bouquets, wreaths, and trees.
Classical Revival: This category may include columns, urns, obelisks, and willow trees.
Hands: There are four variations of the hand motif in Ontario cemeteries;

Upwards Pointing: Most common of the hand manifestations.
Clasping Hands: Hands linked or clasping as in a handshake.
Presenting Hands: Hands holding an item, most commonly a Bible or flowers.
Descending Hand: Least common of the four variations. Hand oriented downwards, pointing at or holding an item, most commonly a scroll.
Animals: Most often seen on stones of children. Common depictions include birds (doves in particular) and lambs.
Figures: There are two common representations of this motif, human and divine;

Human: May include human mourning figures or representations of Adam and Eve. Does not include portrait stones.
Divine: May include representations of angels or cherubs.
Miscellaneous: This category is reserved for motifs which do not fit into any other category. May include religious symbols (crosses), occupational symbols or affiliations. Complex motifs containing two or more motif categories should be classified under miscellaneous.
None: This category is reserved for stones which never had a motif. Use Undetermined for stones with missing parts or undecipherable motifs.

Cemetery Terminology

Symbol/Term	Interpretation/Definition
"AE"	Latin for years of life
Anchor	Symbol for hope
Angel	Symbol for transporting soul to heaven
Animal	Examples include lambs and doves, which symbolize purity, peace, devotion, youth
Ark	Symbol for passage through troubled times
Classical Revival Motifs	Examples include urns, columns, and obelisks—popularity of these designs linked to the interest in Greek and Roman archaeological finds during the late 18th and early 19th centuries
"Consort"	A widower; husband was alive at time of wife's death
Curtains	Symbol for final act in life, curtain comes down
Death heads	Winged skull designs on early colonial gravestones (that eventually evolved into winged angels and later cherubs); symbol for the soul's journey to heaven
Flowers	Lily/rose – symbol for purity Foliage/fruit – symbol for lushness of heaven Ivy – symbol for Christian constancy Palms – symbol for peace, victory Thistle – national flower of Scotland Flower bud/broken bud – symbol for life cut short, budded on earth but will bloom in heaven
Floral wreaths	Symbol for mourning; often used to frame an epitaph
"Footstone"	Smaller stones placed at the foot of the grave which may display initials or name of deceased
Hands	Symbol for a relationship between living and dead: Upwards pointing – hope for deceased to travel heavenward Linked hands – union, greeting with the hope of meeting a loved one again Upwards presenting – gift offer, usually holding a Bible or flowers Descending hand – usually holds an object such as a scroll, symbolically the hand of God
"Headstone"	Grave markers which are upright tablets placed at the head of the grave
"IOOF"	Independent Order of Odd Fellows
"Maker's Mark"	If present, can usually be found in the lower left hand corner of the stone; may indicate where stone was carved and by whom
*"Memento Mori"*	Latin for "Remember Death"
"Motif"	A design appearing on gravestones
"Primary Motif"	Motif located in centre of stone or largest motif
"Relict"	A widow; wife was alive at time of husband's death
"Secondary Motif"	Motif that functions as a decorative detail for primary motif; often, floral motifs will be classified as secondary
"Slab stone"	Grave markers placed flush against the ground
Square and Compass	Symbol for Freemasonry; order of the Masonic fraternal organization
Tempus fugit	Latin for "Time flies"
Willow tree	Symbol for longevity, gospel of Christ; appears to "weep," representing the sorrow and grief of mourning

Appendix II

Sample Lesson Plan
Memento Mori: Bringing the Classroom to the Cemetery

Grade Level: Grade 8 through 12

Background:

Early graveyards offer the educator a unique opportunity to employ primary historical information to engage and excite students as they learn about their local history. Information gained from the stones relating to birth and death dates, surnames, and family relationships has a practical application in the study of history. Gravestones should also be viewed as a form of expression capable of providing insight into aspects of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century life. The visual imagery of the motifs is an early form of folk art expression. There is a deeper, more symbolic function to the motifs which parallels contemporary thoughts in religious philosophy and contemporary culture.

Objectives:

By the end of the program, students will be able to:

Formulate questions for research and inquiry
Organize, record and present information gathered through research
Select and use a variety of primary and secondary documents
Identify key people, places, and events in community history

Material/Resources:

Call Cemetery Manager or Caretaker to inform them of your intention to visit. Discuss any details such as date and number of students. Consider arranging a guide for the cemetery or visit the cemetery prior to the fieldtrip to orient yourself and choose an area for research. Research and prepare a brief history of the cemetery. If required, arrange a follow-up trip to the local museum, archives, or historical society for further research.

Activity

Introduction:

Conduct a pre-visit session to outline expected behaviors (Cemetery Manners) while on fieldtrip and deal with any sensitivity or anxiety issues that may be present (for example is a student nervous about visiting a cemetery? Are there any cultural taboos to discuss?). Discuss the difference between primary and secondary resources and how to consider the credibility of sources. Provide students with a brief history of the chosen cemetery and its context within the community's history. Provide each student with a copy of the terminology sheet and the Gravestone Inventory Sheet to review. Encourage students to think about research projects they may wish to pursue. Discuss some possible topics and also give examples of possible projects; poems, narratives, maps, pictorial presentations, graphs, creative writing, artistic renditions, sculptures, etc.

Content and Teaching Strategies:

Cemetery
Upon arrival at the cemetery, briefly review the history. Complete a Gravestone Inventory Sheet as a class taking time to explain the sections as needed. Have students work in pairs to explore the cemetery (or if large, limit activity to a particular section) and complete several Gravestone Inventory Sheets. Regroup and discuss several examples asking students to explain their choices. Discuss the results of the Gravestone Inventory Sheets. Suggested questions for discussion:

What were the most common motifs seen?
How many different shapes of gravestones were seen?
Did students recognize any names from the gravestones?
Did students observe any patterns? Examples of illness?
What did students notice about the condition of the stones? What types of material held up best? Worst?
Were there any interesting or unusual epitaphs seen?
What did students find most interesting about the cemetery?

If possible, follow up the fieldtrip with a visit to the local museum/archives/historical society or local history collection to allow students to investigate supplementary material for their presentations. Resources to consider include census records, business directories, newspapers, genealogy files, photographs, written histories, and biographies. Most heritage sites would welcome students with prior arrangement. Remember, material will not be able to be removed.

Classroom
Give students sufficient time to prepare a presentation. Discuss appropriate research materials. After presentations have a wrap-up session where students discuss what they learned from the cemetery fieldtrip and how their perceptions of a cemetery have changed. What did they learn from the presentations? Encourage students to donate their research to the local archives.

Assessment and Evaluation:

Keep notes on the students' perceptions of touring the cemetery. Prepare a rubric to assess the projects of the students. Include criteria relating to use of resources, organization of ideas, critical and creative thinking skills, and presentation techniques.

Reflection/Follow-up:

What worked well and what didn't? Why? How will you improve the fieldtrip next time? What pre-planning could have been done? What were the most asked questions of the students? What, if any, were their anxieties about being in a cemetery?

Call Cemetery Manager and museum staff (if necessary) to thank them for their assistance.

Resources:

For additional information and resources, please see the following;

For information on the study of gravestones, visit Association for Gravestone Studies:
http://www.gravestonestudies.org/
For information on the study of death and dying, visit The Center for Thanatology Research and Education Inc.:
http://www.thanatology.org/home.html
For teacher resources, including lesson plan and activity ideas, visit the Vermont Old Cemetery Association - Stones and Bones teacher resource:
http://www.sover.net/~hwdbry/voca/
For sample lesson plan, visit Colonial Williamsburg – History Comes Alive in the Graveyard:
http://www.history.org/history/teaching/graveyrd2.cfm
For general information on Cemetery Studies, visit:
http://www.angelfire.com/ky2/cemetery/
For sample lesson plan, visit Historica, Oshawa Community Museum and Archives – Math Outside of the Classroom:
http://www.histori.ca/prodev/lp.do?id=13019
For sample lesson plan, visit Evergreen – I Want a Tombstone That Lasts:
http://www.evergreen.ca/en/lg/lessons/gravestone.html
For teacher resources, visit the Peterborough Centennial Museum and Archives - Cemetery Studies; A Guide for Teachers:
http://www.pcma.ca/index.htm

Further Suggested Activities:

Visit a monument maker and observe gravestone carving. How does the modern procedure compare with the early methods? What kind of materials are used today? How do modern epitaphs and motifs differ?
Invite the cemetery caretaker, museum professional, or a member of the local genealogical society to tour the cemetery with you.
Visit a local cemetery manager at work.
Visit the local museum or genealogical society to further research some of the ideas presented during the cemetery tour. Examples may include study of businesses or individuals, organizations, community health (epidemics, sickness), settlement patterns, and popularity of various motif designs.
Visit a local funeral home to discuss changes in funeral customs and mourning.

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