William B. Rogers and Terese Martyn | A Consensus at Last: American Civil War Texts and the Topics that Dominate the College Classroom | The History Teacher, 41.4

A Consensus at Last: American Civil War Texts and the Topics that Dominate the College Classroom

William B. Rogers and Terese Martyn
Drew University, New Jersey

THE NUMBER OF BOOKS published on the American Civil War has been remarkable. According to the 2002 edition of The Civil War Desk Reference by the Library of Congress, "at least 50,000 books and pamphlets (some estimates go as high as 70,000) on the Civil War have been published since the 1860's."¹ Consequently, history instructors have to confront the difficult task of selecting a few publications from the endless number of choices that exist. This challenge encouraged us to examine closely syllabi of advanced undergraduate courses on the American Civil War to determine which publications college instructors are assigning.

As this project continued over a course of several years, we soon realized that our project went beyond learning about the various books that were read in the classroom. From reviewing 200 syllabi representing the scholastic years 2000–2001 through 2005–2006, we also came to a better understanding of how instructors were teaching and approaching this subject. Our data identified the types of materials that were most commonly used in these elective or upper division courses, and the various combinations in which these materials (textbooks, readers, journal articles, film, online sources, and so on) were used became apparent.

Even though the teaching component and methodology became a crucial part of our study that we intend to expand on in the future, the focus of this work is to keep with our original objective; we want to provide an overview of the books that were commonly assigned in the academic years 2000–2001 through 2005–2006. Instead of simply providing a nearly endless list of authors and titles, we have reviewed these works to outline the major subjects that dominate this coursework as we move into the new millennium. Hence, this research does not want just to provide its readers with a litany of titles and authors, but rather a review of some of the most current historical trends. After reviewing such information, one can confidently conclude that James McPherson's work dominates the American Civil War literature assigned in the college classroom.

Before discussing the results, it is first essential to describe the basic parameters we set forth for this project. When we first began, we had no idea how difficult it would be to randomly locate an array of American Civil War syllabi from the internet. Despite the fact that helpful tools exist for these searches, such as George Mason University's Syllabi Finder, this alone did not allow us to meet our goal. Therefore, we also had to utilize other well-known search engines and tools.

After we began this task, we immediately recognized that we were not using the search engines to their full potential. To do so meant that we needed to execute more advanced search techniques beyond identifying such key phrases as "Civil War Era," "Civil War & Reconstruction," and "Civil War and Reconstruction" in the title line of a web page. We quickly learned the importance of other components of the web page. For instance, numerous syllabi contained an abbreviated form of the word "syllabus" in the URL line. Searches with such phrases as "syll," "syl," or "syllab" accompanied by the phrase "civwar," oftentimes brought us the desired results. This illustrates that much of the searching was accomplished by trial and error and endless patience. Since we did not want to skew the results with certain books or authors, we refrained from entering specific titles or names.

Besides the limitations presented by the search engine technology, we also encountered some other restrictions. First, we realize that not all instructors use or are familiar with web or internet technology. Thus, we admit that our research has immediately omitted an entire group of instructors. Second, for those who do create a web-based syllabus, their work might not be available outside their academic community if it can only be accessed via an electronic bulletin board that requires a password. Therefore, this eliminated another group of syllabi from our study. Third, although an institution may list a Civil War course in their catalog, it may not necessarily be offered on their campus, but rather at a neighboring institution that is part of a local consortium. Fourth, advanced electives on this particular subject are not always offered every academic year at smaller or mid-sized institutions. All of these factors prohibited us from obtaining a large number of syllabi over a short period of time.

While 200 syllabi may not sound like a large dataset, it was sizeable considering the number of obstacles we faced for a specialized course such as the American Civil War. The fact that such coursework was often taught on a rotating schedule meant that we needed to spread our study over a period of a few years in order to get a more complete sampling. Since larger institutions tended to teach this type of course more frequently, we needed to extend the study so that we had a fair sampling of institutions included in our project.

In order to classify the types of universities and colleges in this study, we turned to the Carnegie Classification system. Each syllabus was categorized according to its institution's Carnegie designation (see Figure 1). This additional step allowed us to determine how varying types of learning institutions addressed the subject. For instance, we examined and contrasted how large research universities presented the material compared to smaller baccalaureate colleges. Though our comparison of institutions indicate that there were some subtle differences at times, by and large, most institutions emphasized very similar subjects and used many of the same books. In addition, the classification process gave us a meaningful method to refer to these institutions while they maintained their anonymity and remained unidentified sources.

Figure 1: Carnegie Classification Rankings of the Institutions Included in the Study ^a b


Carnegie Category	Total No.	Private	Public

Very High Research Institutions	36	10	26
High Research Institutions	21	2	19
Doctoral Research Institutions	15	8	7
Large Masters Institutions	37	7	30
Medium Masters Institutions	20	11	9
Smaller Masters Institutions	9	7	2
Baccalaureate College (Arts & Science)	29	28	1
Baccalaureate College (Diverse)	14	10	4
Associate Public (Two Year Public) ^c	17		17

     a. Carnegiefoundation.org, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, April 2006 <http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/classifications/>.
     b. Our study was based on the Carnegie Classification data that was available in the second quarter of 2006. Consequently, some of the institutions could have been re-categorized as the Carnegie Foundation refined the classification system.
     c. The Carnegie Classification includes a complex breakdown to define associate public institutions. For the ease of our project, we did not differentiate between such categories as rural or suburban institutions.

Just as we were about to compile our data, the Carnegie Foundation had completed its latest classification system. Prior to the 2005 Classification, the foundation had mainly categorized institutions by the type and number of degrees a particular institution awarded. For example, a school such as Harvard University was classified in the extensive category based on the number of doctoral and advanced degrees it awarded each year. While most extensive institutions maintained a similar status in the 2005 Classification, many other schools were placed in entirely different categories based on the needs of their student population and the type of curriculum they offered. Thus, the recent Carnegie Classification system has gone beyond "a single framework to represent similarity and difference among institutions" to becoming a more "flexible" system that identifies the diverse nature of institutions and seeks to better "describe and understand colleges and universities."²

Our study includes nine of the Carnegie Classification categories. As the following chart indicates, our data sample contains a fairly balanced number of each group. When reviewing this breakdown, one must keep in mind that certain types of institutions lend themselves to being private or public. For instance, most baccalaureate liberal arts institutions tend to be private, whereas "very high" or "high research" institutions tend to be large public universities.

To provide an even more thorough analysis of how these courses were conducted, each syllabus was categorized by its institution's geographical region and state. Using the sub-region categories from the 2000 United States Census, we were able to assign each institution its appropriate geographical classification. Like the Carnegie Classification, the geographical categorization allowed us to further investigate any possible differences and similarities that might better explain how universities and colleges approach teaching the American Civil War.

Through the use of the Carnegie Classification system, we were able to validate that our sampling had identified a range of syllabi that represented a balanced group of universities and colleges. However, we cannot make the same claim for our last parameter, geographical location. Our data shows that we were able to locate more syllabi from the South, particularly the South Atlantic states. Almost forty percent of the institutions came from the South, twenty-five percent the Midwest, and schools from the West and Northeast represent fewer than twenty percent each. Though we eventually plan to share how this data applies to teaching trends across the nation in a future work, this article intends to illustrate tentatively if an author's native region still bears importance when selecting certain works.

Once we finished categorizing these syllabi, we faced the task of reviewing the major components of each syllabus, such as the "objective statement," "required readings," and "exam" sections. Furthermore, we had to determine the timespan the course covered. Although we realize that a syllabus is not a perfect picture of the final outcome of any given course, it does represent an instructor's initial intention and goal for a particular class. We readily recognize that the direction and tone of a course often changes due to the needs of a given group of students or time constraints.

Despite these limitations, we still believe this document can provide us better insight as to how an instructor approaches this coursework. Of all the different segments of the syllabus, the "required reading" section helped identify the subject matter and themes that were most commonly emphasized. Even though it is nearly impossible to classify a book into one particular subject category, we attempted to do our best by determining the primary and secondary focus of each book. Before we started this job, we created a list of broad subject categories that included: general surveys, civilian experience, military experience, military strategy, Northern politics and ideology, prominent individuals, Reconstruction, secession, slavery, Southern/Confederate politics and ideology, war causation, and the war's long-term ramifications on American society.

From these broad groupings, we created more specific categories. For instance, military experience was divided into two categories, one that stressed the common foot soldier and one that centered on the black soldier's contribution. Regarding military strategy, we included the reviews of specific military campaigns, regimental histories, explanations of the war's outcome, and studies of the significance of certain weaponry. When discussing the civilian experience, it was necessary to determine which books solely focused on women versus those that took a wider approach. Those that solely examined women were given a unique category. We felt it was necessary to make such distinctions to examine how historians and instructors have modified their emphasis on the war in recent years.

After classifying these books, we were able to conclude that the most emphasis was placed on the common soldier's military experience. In fact, half the institutions from each sub-region of the country assigned such a text, amounting to almost forty percent of the institutions in the entire study. Next, twenty-one percent of the colleges and universities were likely to select texts that emphasized more conventional military topics such as strategy, tactics, campaigns, technology, and weaponry. This means that almost eighteen percent more of the institutions in our study included books whose primary emphasis was on human experience compared to those that primarily reviewed traditional war related subjects. This is a substantial difference considering we created a unique category for works that exclusively focused on African-Americans' military experience; this category applied to eleven percent of the schools.

With the rise of social history over the past thirty plus years, it is not surprising that many instructors have included books on the common soldier. However, the recent decades of historical scholarship cannot solely be credited with the increasing focus on this particular theme. Over fifty years ago, Bell Wiley brought this topic to the forefront with his vivid descriptions of the mundane and everyday aspects of Rebel and Yankee soldier life. Like current authors, he too pondered the same issues such as the individual motivation for going to war.

While our generation cannot take credit for the discovery of the significance of the common soldier's experience, recent historians have capitalized on this scholarship. As a result, it has provided instructors with an assortment of titles. Our study found that some instructors approach this subject under the rubrics of a specific battle with books such as David Williams' Johnny Reb's War: Battlefield and Homefront, which is set at Antietam, or Noah Andre Trudeau's Gettysburg: A Testing of Courage. Others have included works that specifically focus on the Union or the Confederate experience, such as All for the Union: The Civil War Diary and Letters of Elisha Hunt Rhodes or Samuel Hodges' Letters to Amanda: The Civil War Letters of Marion Hill Fitzpatrick, Army of Northern Virginia. Still others have used books that contain a broader assessment of the soldier's experience by selecting James Robertson's Soldiers Blue and Gray or Reid Mitchell's Civil War Soldiers. Despite the varied approaches, these works share one common denominator; their content is strongly dependent on diaries, memoirs, and letters. Consequently, this allows instructors to integrate poignant primary source material as well as present the war in terms of the human experience.

James McPherson's For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War was the most commonly assigned book relating to the soldier's experience. Thirty-three institutions in our study included this work on their syllabus, which is sixteen percent of the total. Considering the numerous monographs and personal narratives available on this subject, this is an impressive statistic. A large part of McPherson's success is due to the fact that his sources are incredibly reliable since they originated from the actual war years instead of potentially revised, sentimentalized, or sanitized remembrances recorded years after the war. More importantly, he addressed one of the most crucial concerns that dominate this type of scholarship: What made men willing to go to war, and, once there, to endure it? By tackling this question, he was able to confront an imperative issue of our own generation—the soldier's personal ideology relating to slavery.

Many of the books instructors assigned that dealt with military experience had the additional advantage in the selection process because they also touched upon military strategy or narrative. Thus, they have given instructors the ability to present material in an integrated fashion that goes far beyond discussing the well-known generals and the maneuvers associated with specific battles. For instance, though it is most evident that Edward Ayers' In the Presence of Mine Enemies is a micro-examination of two counties, one north of the Mason Dixon Line and the other south, he vividly described some of the eastern theater and provided an explanation as to why certain military decisions were carried out. In the process of doing so, he intimately discussed the impact of these battles on the citizenry as well as the foot soldier. In addition, he explored closely how local politics played out in these communities and eloquently illustrated how they were a microcosm of the country at large. By implementing this approach, he struck a balance between describing the societal and military issues relating to the pre-war and war years.

Gerald Linderman's Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War is another work that successfully incorporated military concepts while placing an importance on the human element. At the same time as he compared the soldier's viewpoint on the war with that of the civilian population, he demonstrated how military strategies such as "total war" and "modern warfare" encouraged some to become disillusioned. By revealing the thoughts and attitudes of those directly involved, Linderman has illuminated and better clarified the meaning of these theoretical military concepts. These few works indicate that historians have not totally strayed from traditional military subjects. Nevertheless, it does point out that instructors have decided to approach this material through the prism of the ordinary foot solder rather than just through the eyes of the elite leadership.

With regard to books that intensely analyzed military strategy, instructors included an array of works on their syllabi. As a result, a strong pattern did not emerge and no particular work dominated this category. For instance, a few instructors used such classics as Richard Current's Lincoln and the First Shot, Henry Steele Commager's The Blue and the Gray: The Story of the Civil War as Told by Participants, or T. Harry Williams' Lincoln and his Generals. Others selected detailed narrative accounts such as James Lee McDonough's Shiloh: In Hell Before Night, Stephen Sears' Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam, or William Garrett Piston's Wilson's Creek: The Second Battle of the Civil War. Those who wanted to discuss technology and weaponry included such works as David Mindell's War, Technology, and Experience Aboard the USS Monitor or Herman Hattaway's Shades of Blue and Gray: An Introductory Military History of the Civil War on their syllabi.

Close to ten institutions in our study assigned Gabor Boritt's essay collection, Why the Confederacy Lost, which mainly focuses on military issues.³ Even though this may not seem extensive, it is worth mentioning since various essays in this work are representative of other military related monographs identified in our survey. For example, James McPherson's "theory of contingency" dominated his essay "American Victory, American Defeat," as well as his book, Crossroads to Freedom: Antietam. In both writings, he contended that "different outcomes could have been possible under different circumstances.⁴ Like McPherson, Joseph Glatthaar's essay "Black Glory: The African-American Role in the Union Victory," which was published in Boritt's book, was expanded into a monograph format and was identified in our study. The major concern in his essay parallels that of his book, Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of Black Soldiers and White Officers, and contends that the black soldier's contribution was critical to the war's outcome.

The brief description of these books exemplifies how historians have provided instructors with a wide array of ways to present military related material. For instance, years ago, most historians provided a play-by-play military narrative without considering the "what ifs." Instead, McPherson presented a challenge to students by having them take into account how different conditions could have created entirely different results. In addition, past historians have tended to explain the war's outcome in terms of the North's victory. Even though our research found that David Donald's 1960 classic, Why the North Won the Civil War, was assigned twice as much as that of Boritt's Why the Confederacy Lost, Boritt's perspective was not available some forty years ago. Furthermore, few wrote about the black experience let alone the black military contribution and its importance. In fact, Dudley Taylor Cornish's The Sable Arm: Black Troops in the Union Army, 1861–1865 was a rarity in 1956. Thus, these works signify the growth and maturity that has taken place in Civil War military studies.

While many aspects of American Civil War studies have changed, many have remained the same. In 1964, a professor of history from New Mexico State University, Dr. Monroe Billington (now retired), conducted a study to determine which texts were commonly used to teach the history of the South, particularly that of the Old South. Out of the 216 colleges and universities that participated in his survey, eighty-seven of the institutions specifically offered a course on the American Civil War.⁵ At that time, fifty-one schools stated that they used James Randall's Civil War and Reconstruction, which equated to almost sixty percent of the institutions that offered a specific course on the war.⁶ According to our study, seventy-one percent of the institutions continue to use a broad survey in their courses. Despite an institution's Carnegie Classification, almost forty-six percent of all the courses assigned McPherson's Ordeal By Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction as their primary textbook, and twenty-one percent selected his Battle Cry of Freedom. In fact, fifty percent of the community colleges and forty percent of those classified as "very high" research institutions in our data included McPherson's Ordeal By Fire in their undergraduate Civil War courses. In addition, almost one-third of all the institutions from each region of the country assigned Ordeal By Fire, which indicates that regional bias has not played a central role in choosing such a vital and key component to the Civil War course syllabus. Thus, we have concluded that Ordeal By Fire has become the definitive Civil War textbook of our time.

A considerable part of McPherson's success can be contributed to the fact that he clearly conveyed the relevance of the slavery issue in regards to the cause of the war. In particular, his research on the years leading up to the war clearly demonstrated how the economic, political, and social struggles of the time were all interconnected with slavery. In addition to its discussion of slavery, the text can also be commended for its concise and coherent descriptions of the military battles. Furthermore, most of the major campaigns are accompanied by excellent illustrations. While an initial review of our study may indicate that a lot of instructors are excluding the traditional military monographs and are replacing them with those that stress human experience, we contend that McPherson's work gives instructors the opportunity to cover such conventional military topics.

Following the use of military related books and general survey textbooks, about twenty percent of the instructors in our study selected at least one work that covered women or American slavery. If we had not placed Frederick Douglass in the prominent individual category, slavery texts would have accounted for a slightly higher percentage. Some instructors simultaneously introduced these topics by selecting such works as Deborah Gray White's Ar'n't I a Woman: Female Slaves in the Plantation South or Harriet Jacob's Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl: Written by Herself.

Realizing that a large amount of historical research has been dedicated to American slavery in recent decades, we were rather surprised that more works from this area were not included on syllabi. We also expected to find more specific works on slavery since scholars have come to terms with the fact that the core cause of the war was due to slavery.⁷ However, after completing our own search for such texts, it soon became apparent that these works were frequently included on course syllabi of the Old South or African American studies. Even though historians have been encouraged to go beyond Kenneth Stampp's antebellum examination of slavery, the Civil War and Reconstruction courses in this study typically focused on the years 1850 to 1877. Consequently, this did not permit or encourage instructors to provide an overview of slavery that preceded the antebellum years. Thus, a book such as Peter Kolchin's American Slavery 1619–1877 was infrequently found on such syllabi. Nevertheless, since slavery has become an integral part of most broad survey textbooks, such as McPherson's Ordeal By Fire or Battle Cry of Freedom, some may not think it is necessary to include a book solely dedicated to slavery.

Of the slavery texts instructors selected, a large percentage were novels and personal narratives. Some of the most popular works included Harriet Beecher Stowe's classic, Uncle Tom's Cabin, Melton McLaurin's Celia: A Slave, and Harriet Jacob's Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Similar to the military works, those on slavery stressed the human element.

By and large, almost every book that explored the women's role during the Civil War era favored Southern women over their Northern counterparts. The major agent in over half of these works was the Southern belle. In fact, the most popular monograph in the women's category is Drew Gilpin Faust's Mothers of Invention, which exclusively focused on this elite class of women and how their role changed during the war years. The book's popularity can be contributed to the fact that it also gives instructors the ability to study gender along with providing a unique approach to understanding the dynamics of the slave plantation.

Besides these very broad areas of study, there were two specific subjects that received much attention: the Battle of Gettysburg and Abraham Lincoln. Like the subjects we have discussed so far, instructors treated the review of Gettysburg much the same; through the eyes of personal experience. Sixty-five percent of the instructors who looked at Gettysburg in some detail used Michael Shaara's The Killer Angels. This novel provides a descriptive account of the battle as well as conveys how it directly influenced the lives of those who fought in the battle. Because Gettysburg has become such a mythical event in our history, instructors attempted to address the legendary aspect of the war by using such works as Carol Reardon's Pickett's Charge in History and Memory and Thomas Desjardin's These Honored Dead; How the Story of Gettysburg Shaped American Memory. Both these works go beyond the military technicalities and try to distinguish between fact and myth. In doing so, they recognized that the battle has become imprinted on America's historical consciousness and has taken on much broader implications and meanings. By analyzing the myth, such works addressed the historiography of this significant battle.

Alongside the thorough examination given to Gettysburg, Abraham Lincoln was the most commonly discussed prominent individual. While a couple of instructors looked at such people as John Brown, Jefferson Davis, Andrew Johnson, James Henry Hammond, and Robert E. Lee, the vast majority of instructors who selected a biography overwhelmingly studied the life of Lincoln. Current biographies have touched on an array of subjects such as Lincoln's personal life and psychological profile, as well as his presidential accomplishments. Our study found that instructors by and large included biographies that explored his ideas, politics, and leadership in order to identify the achievements and the struggles he faced during his presidency. The most frequently assigned Lincoln biography in our study, William Gienapp's Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America – A Biography, fits this description.

Gienapp centered his work on the presidential years and primarily discussed how Lincoln handled his responsibilities as Commander-in-Chief. He described a competent man who worked diligently at understanding military matters. He argued that over the course of the war, "Lincoln had a natural aptitude for strategic thinking."⁸ In fact, Gienapp stressed that Lincoln surpassed McClellan as "a superior commander as well as strategist."⁹ In the process, he depicted a flexible individual who had the ability to analyze a military situation and was willing to change his course of action.

Mark Neely's The Last Best Hope of Earth was another recurring biography on some syllabi. Neely stressed the same arguments as Gienapp regarding Lincoln's conduct of the war. However, the book differs in style since Neely based his work on many of Lincoln's eminent speeches and writings. Consequently, his work successfully integrated primary source materials to convey his views on Lincoln.

Each of the recently published Lincoln biographies that were found in our study contained one common component; they all analyzed the evolution of Lincoln's views on American slavery. They each bring this issue to the forefront through the discussion of emancipation. As Gienapp and Neely illustrated that emancipation was a necessary act in order to win the war, Richard Carwardine's Lincoln and Allen Guelzo's Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President stressed that emancipation was God's providence or God's will.¹⁰ Despite the fact that one school of thought interprets Lincoln's action as pragmatic and the other depicts it as prophetic, these recent biographers realize they must come to terms with his views regarding slavery and emancipation since they are writing during this post-civil rights generation.

Even though our research indicates that books on the actual war years dominated the syllabi, we believe it is necessary to briefly identify how the Reconstruction years were treated. According to our study, sixty-four institutions, which represent thirty-two percent of the colleges and universities, assigned a specific monograph or reader on Reconstruction. Almost sixty percent of these institutions assigned Eric Foner's A Short History of Reconstruction: 1863–1877. This percentage does not even account for those instructors who selected Foner's Reconstruction–America's Unfinished Revolution 1863–1877. Besides providing a thorough overview of the period, Foner tracked the racial component of this era. Consequently, it is no wonder that so many teachers include it in their syllabi.

From this study, we came to the conclusion that most institutions, despite geographical location or Carnegie designation, assigned a textbook in their Civil War and Reconstruction course, frequently McPherson's Ordeal By Fire in particular. In addition, most baccalaureate, masters, and research institutions supplemented McPherson's textbook with monographs that placed an emphasis on the human experience of foot soldiers, slaves, and women. Beyond this trend, most of these monographs as well as McPherson's text share one common thread; they acknowledge the significant role slavery had in the events leading up to the war as well its lasting ramifications on American society. Thus, many of these works contain little debate over war causation since they recognize that slavery was the root cause of the war. Since today's works have moved beyond war causation, it helps explain why our data indicates that an author's native region seems to bear little influence on the book selection process. Many of the regional barriers have been displaced—the war is over. Consequently, instructors are more concerned with choosing works that integrate the issue of race or those that illustrate how slavery influenced the minds, ideas, and actions of the ordinary foot soldier, plantation wife, Northern free laborer, or a distinguished national leader like Abraham Lincoln.

Notes

^1.� Margaret E. Wagner, Gary W. Gallagher, and Paul Finkelman eds., The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), xx.

^2.� Alexander C. McCormick and Chun-Mei Zhao, "Rethinking and Reframing the Carnegie Classification," Change (September/October 2005): 56 and 57.

^3.� Gabor S. Boritt, ed., Why the Confederacy Lost (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 6–7.

^4.� Ibid., xiii.

^5.� Monroe Billington, "College Courses in Southern History: A Survey," Journal of Southern History 31.3 (1965): 307.

^6.� Ibid., 310.

^7.� Terese Martyn, "The Changing Interpretations of American Slavery: Historical Perspectives of the 1990s," diss., Drew University, 2005, 167.

^8.� William E. Gienapp, Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America – A Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 87.

^9.� Ibid., 107.

^10.� Allen C. Guelzo, Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President (Grand Rapids, Michigan: W. B. Eerdmans, 1999), 341. Richard J. Carwardine, Lincoln (Harlow, England: Pearson Education, 2003), 220.

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A Consensus at Last: American Civil War Texts and the Topics that Dominate the College Classroom

William B. Rogers and Terese MartynDrew University, New Jersey

Notes

William B. Rogers and Terese Martyn
Drew University, New Jersey