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Dietrich Bonhoeffer, A Modern Martyr: Taking a Stand Against the State Gone Mad

Alex Rankin
Landon Middle School, Topeka, Kansas
Junior Division Historical Paper, National History Day 2006 Competition

"Daring to do what is right, not what fancy may tell you,
valiantly grasping occasions, not cravenly doubting—
freedom comes only through deeds, not through
thoughts taking wing.

Faint not nor fear, but go out to the storm and the action,
trusting in God whose commandment you faithfully follow;
freedom, exultant, will welcome your joy."1
DIETRICH BONHOEFFER penned this poem during his last days, knowing that his death at the hands of the German SS was imminent.2 He awoke early on the morning of April 9, 1945, inside the walls of Flossenbürg concentration camp, well aware of the fate which awaited him. Guards marched to his cell and ordered him to remove his prison garb in one final attempt at humiliation.3 As SS officers mocked him on his walk to the gallows, Bonhoeffer remained committed to the convictions for which he was about to die. Dietrich Bonhoeffer was hanged as a traitor to his country, but loyal to the beliefs he held sacred. An SS doctor who witnessed Bonhoeffer's execution wrote, "I was most deeply moved by the way this loveable man prayed, so devout and so certain that God heard his prayer.... He climbed to the steps of the gallows, brave and composed...I have hardly ever seen a man die so entirely submissive to the will of God."4 Bonhoeffer took a courageous stand against the madness of the German government, and paid the ultimate price for doing so—death. 1
      Bonhoeffer's life began on February 4, 1906, in Breslau, Germany (now Wroclaw, Poland) when he and his twin sister, Sabine, were born to Paula and Karl Bonhoeffer, the sixth and seventh of eight children. The Bonhoeffers were a respectable and well-to-do family. Karl was a prominent psychiatrist and neurologist at the University of Berlin, while Paula was the daughter of a Chaplain in the court of Kaiser Wilhelm II and one of the few women of her generation to have obtained a college degree. Bonhoeffer grew up in a close-knit family and was taught at home during his early years by his mother. Her emphasis on moral and intellectual integrity was shared by all the Bonhoeffer family and later proved to be a major force in Bonhoeffer's theological ideals. The Bonhoeffers opposed Hitler and Nazism from its beginnings;5 they considered Hitler's rise to power a misfortune.6 2
      At age 14, Bonhoeffer surprised his family by declaring that he was to become a theologian. The family, though morally concerned, was religiously indifferent, so his announcement was met with considerable bewilderment. He was a bright child and it was expected that he would follow his father into psychiatry. When his family, in an attempt to dissuade him, criticized the Church as weak and self-serving, Bonhoeffer responded: "If the Church is really what you say it is, then I shall have to reform it!"7 His father later wrote that he thought a quiet, uneventful minister's life would have been almost a pity for Dietrich.8 3
      In 1923, Bonhoeffer began his theological studies at Tübingen University. He continued his collegiate studies at the University of Berlin, completing his 1927 dissertation Sanctorum Communio (The Communion of Saints), at the remarkable age of 21. This dissertation was hailed by Karl Barth, a well-known theologian of that time, as "a theological miracle."9 4
      Bonhoeffer accepted an appointment as the assistant pastor of a Lutheran church in Barcelona when he was 22. His months in Spain between 1928 and 1929 came at the beginning of the Great Depression, giving Bonhoeffer a first-hand look at true poverty. From 1930–31, Bonhoeffer studied at Union Theological Seminary in New York. While in the United States, he was involved in the ministry of the Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem, where he witnessed the historic black church's passionate commitment to social justice, racial equality and human rights. This experience caused Bonhoeffer to see the growing racism against Jews in his own country in a new light.10 He began to believe that Christians should be committed to social and racial justice for those whom society looked down upon. 5
      Bonhoeffer returned to Berlin in 1931, and was ordained as a pastor in the Lutheran Church. He took a position as a lecturer in theology at Berlin University and began receiving widespread recognition for his lectures and writings. Though his star was on the rise, so too was Adolf Hitler's. In January 1933, Hitler became Chancellor of Germany and within months had managed to enact the "Law for the Restoration of the Civil Service," the first major anti-Jewish statute of the era. This law contained the so-called "Aryan Clause" which excluded Jews from positions in government, universities and churches. 6
      Greatly disturbed by Hitler's anti-Semitic laws, Bonhoeffer gave a lecture in April 1933 to a group of German Church leaders entitled "The Church and the Jewish Question." This talk is widely recognized as one of the earliest and strongest responses of any Church leader to Nazi anti-Semitic actions.11 It was the first public stand Bonhoeffer took against the German government, but not his last. In his speech, Bonhoeffer called upon the Church to defend the victims of state persecution. Specifically, he called upon the Church to fight political injustice in three ways: First, to question state injustice and call the state to responsibility; second, to help the victims of injustice, whether they were Church members or not. Third, and most importantly, Bonhoeffer called upon the Church to "fall into the spokes of the wheel itself" in order to halt the machinery of injustice.12 Bonhoeffer was convinced that the Church had an explicit ethical commitment to those persecuted by Nazism.13 7
      In the fall of 1933, Bonhoeffer left his university position in Berlin because, he explained, he could not remain while his "non-Aryan" colleagues were barred from such positions.14 He became a pastor to two German-speaking churches in London. 8
      In 1933–34, the German Evangelical Church faced a crisis, one that ultimately split the Church. Many ecumenical leaders favored Hitler's efforts to unify the Protestant churches into one "Reich Church," and adopt creeds to align the churches with National Socialism. But Hitler's desires were opposed by many other pastors who wanted the Church to maintain its independence and integrity. When the so-called "German Christians" adopted a prohibition on clergy of "non-Aryan extraction," a group of dissident pastors formed the "Confessing Church," which later became the headquarters of the Protestant resistance against Hitler in Germany. Bonhoeffer, living in London, was not directly involved in the split of the Church during 1934, but was supportive of the events which resulted in the creation of the new Church. 9
      Bonhoeffer returned to Germany in 1935, when he was offered a position teaching at Finkenwalde, an illegal Confessing Church seminary. Most of his students were banned from training for and earning positions in the official German Evangelical Church. Pressure from the Gestapo reached those at Finkenwalde with the passage of the 1937 Himmler Decree, which outlawed the education and examination of Confessing Church candidates. Shortly thereafter, the Gestapo closed Finkenwalde and many of Bonhoeffer's students were arrested.15 10
      Pressure began to mount on Bonhoeffer due to his public stance against the Nazi party, including his lectures against their anti-Semitic policies and his work with the Confessing Church. In 1936, he was declared a "Pacifist and Enemy of the State," then in 1938, he was forbidden to live or work in Berlin.16 Germany's anti-Semitism was unleashed during the infamous Kristallnacht on November 9, 1938, as Germans ran the streets looting Jewish shops, vandalizing and burning synagogues, and savagely beating defenseless Jews. Bonhoeffer returned to Berlin after this to discredit the attempts by Germans to attribute the violence to God's vengeance on the Jews for the death of Christ. Bonhoeffer was greatly disturbed that not one word of protest was heard from any of the official Protestant Churches.17 His public protests against the violence of Kristallnacht gained Bonhoeffer even more attention from the Nazis. His closest friends and family began to encourage him to return to the safety of New York, where he could preach and earn a living. Fearing for his safety, and at the urging of his friends, Bonhoeffer accepted a position at Union Seminary in New York. 11
      Bonhoeffer set sail for New York on June 2, 1939, intending to stay there for at least a year. However, the guilt of leaving his fellow pastors and countrymen behind soon overtook him. He wrote to a friend, "I have made a mistake in coming to America...I will have no right to participate in the reconstruction of Christian life in Germany after the war if I do not share the trials of this time with my people."18 He returned to Germany on July 8, 1939. One historian captured the immensity of this decision with the following words:
The image of Bonhoeffer boarding ship, voluntarily preparing to sail back—straight into the hell that Germany had become, into resistance, into the great likelihood of his own death—is an unforgettable scene and a poignant moment in the history of the Church in the twentieth century.19
 		12
      Bonhoeffer's return to Germany in 1939 was the turning point of his life. He took a new and bolder stand against the tyranny in Germany.20 His preaching intensified to the point that, in 1940, he was banned by the Gestapo from any public speaking whatsoever.21 His various acts of resistance against the Nazi regime, including overt conspiracy, increased significantly. 13
      Bonhoeffer was, nevertheless, constantly at risk of being drafted into military service. To avoid this, Hans von Dohnanyi, his brother-in-law, got him a position as a "confidential agent" in the German military intelligence, the "Abwehr." In the Abwehr, Bonhoeffer was ostensibly to use his church contacts to evaluate the political condition in Scandinavia, Britain, the United States and Switzerland. Instead, Bonhoeffer became a double-agent, using those connections to spread information of the resistance movement to the Allies. While working in the Abwehr, Bonhoeffer was involved in a plot to help Jews escape from Germany, code-named "Operation 7." 14
      Bonhoeffer also joined a small resistance group within the Abwehr that was active in planning to assassinate Hitler. The Gestapo became suspicious of the Abwehr's activities, and in April 1943, several conspirators, including Bonhoeffer, were arrested. He was incarcerated in Berlin's Tegel prison. At first, the Gestapo had no specific evidence against Bonhoeffer of any wrongdoing. Because of this, he was allowed to write and have visitors while at Tegel. After a July 1944 assassination attempt on Hitler by several of his top-ranking officers, however, the Gestapo discovered information relating to the earlier resistance efforts of Bonhoeffer and the Abwehr conspirators. His privileges to have visitors were revoked and, in early 1945, Bonhoeffer was moved to the Buchenwald concentration camp. In April he was moved to Flossenbürg, where, on Hitler's orders, he and other Abwehr conspirators, including Admiral Wilhelm Canaris and Hans Oster, were hanged for their alleged roles in various assassination attempts. Bonhoeffer was 39 years old. Later that month, his brothers-in-law Hans von Dohnanyi and Rudiger Schleicher, and his brother Klaus were also executed for their ties to the Abwehr conspirators. Three weeks later Hitler was dead and the war in Europe was over. One historian has noted that, in carrying out so many executions toward the end of the war, it was as though, with the end in sight, Nazi leaders had decided to eradicate the moral leadership of postwar Germany.22 15
      Aside from Bonhoeffer's stand against Germany's anti-Semitic treatment of the Jews, he is most well-known for his many writings, during the years prior to and during his imprisonment, detailing his convictions regarding resistance to Nazi tyranny. Chief among these is The Cost of Discipleship. Written in 1937, it was an extensive analysis of the Sermon on the Mount, and reflected on the struggle of German Christians to remain faithful to their beliefs, rather than succumb to the whims of a tyrannical regime.23 In 1942, he wrote the Christmas essay, After Ten Years,24 to remind his co-conspirators of the ideals underlying their opposition to Nazism for which they were willing to give their lives. During his imprisonment, he wrote extensively to his friend Eberhard Bethge and others. These letters and poems formed the book Letters and Papers From Prison.25 Its publication following his death caused people from all over the world to begin to appreciate Bonhoeffer's constant probing into the meaning of the Christian faith and the role of Christians in opposing tyranny. Many collections of his writings, including sermons, lectures, poems and letters, have been published since his death. A new, 16-volume Dietrich Bonhoeffer Works, currently in the process of being published, will make many of his letters and other writings available to the public for the first time.26 Clearly, his influence continued beyond his death. 16
      Bonhoeffer's death was initially felt most keenly in the international Church community, rather than in his native Germany.27 Many Confessing Christians had never heard of Bonhoeffer until after 1945.28 Given this history, his post-war theological influence on the Christian Church is even more impressive. His letters and theological works continue to influence Christian thought,29 and for many Christians, his resistance against Nazism and the profound insights in his writings, offer ethical and theological models for the modern world.30 17
      While Bonhoeffer was not the only German Church member to oppose the Nazi's militaristic and racist stances, he was virtually alone in demanding that the Nazi persecution of the Jews have some response from the churches, including outright resistance.31 He became a crucial link in the ecumenical chain trying to foster resistance to Nazism throughout Europe and the world. One Church leader who knew Bonhoeffer declared:
He was one of the first as well as one of the bravest witnesses against idolatry. He understood what he chose, when he chose resistance.... He was crystal clear in his convictions; and young as he was,...he saw the truth and spoke it with a complete absence of fear.32
 		18
      Bonhoeffer's resistance went so far as to advocate the assassination of the Fuhrer, and the defeat of Germany. As he said in 1941, "I pray for the defeat of my country, for I think that is the only possibility of paying for all the suffering that my country has caused in the world."33 Another time he said, "If we claim to be Christians, there is no room for expediency. Hitler is anti-Christ. Therefore, we must go on with our work and eliminate him whether he is successful or not."34 Bonhoeffer's involvement in plots to assassinate Hitler disturbs many Christians; however, he believed that rather than wait on God for a dramatic rescue from evil, the Church was called on to take responsible action to counter the oppression.35 Bonhoeffer once explained of his involvement in both the resistance and assassination efforts:
If a drunken driver drives into a crowd, what is the task of the Christian and the Church? To run along behind to bury dead and bind up the wounded? Or isn't it, if possible, to get the driver out of the driver's seat?36
 Many now agree with the sentiment expressed by Martin Luther King, Jr., when he stated, "If your opponent has a conscience, then follow Gandhi and non-violence. But if your enemy has no conscience like Hitler, then follow Bonhoeffer."37		 19
      Bonhoeffer left a legacy that was in stark contrast to the Church leaders of his day. He sacrificed a life of privilege and the security of positions in state-approved churches and universities, rather than compromise his conscience by remaining in Nazi-controlled institutions. His outspoken stand against Germany's anti-Semitic policies, as well as his own actions taken in resistance to Hitler, were done without concern to his own safety or professional future. He truly lived his belief that Christians could not stand by while evil surrounded them. His choice of integrity over ambition stands as an example to Christians and humanity in any context.38 Dietrich Bonhoeffer's life and death exemplified that spiritual power will surely prevail over the forces of evil, but Christians must take an active part in the struggle.39 20
      In 1995, shortly after the fiftieth anniversary of his death, Bonhoeffer was officially exonerated by a Berlin court of the treason charges for which he was executed.40 21
      True martyrs, like Bonhoeffer, are rare.

Bonhoeffer in his skylit cell
bleached by the flares' candescent fall,
pacing out his own citadel,

restores the broken themes of praise,
encourages our borrowed days,
by logic and his sacrifice.

Against wild reasons of the state
his words are quiet but not too quiet.
We hear too late or not too late.41

— Geoffrey Hill

 22


Notes

1. Quoted from "Stations on the Road to Freedom." Dietrich Bonhoeffer, The Martyred Christian, ed. Joan Winmill Brown. (New York: MacMillan, 1983), 91.

2. Wendy Murray Zoba, "A Crisis of Discipleship," Christianity Today, 3 April 1995, 31.

3. "Dietrich Bonhoeffer"; available from Wikipidea web site <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer>; accessed 9 December 2005.

4. David P. Gushee, "Following Jesus to the Gallows," Christianity Today, 3 April 1993, 27; Victoria Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer's Ecumenical Vision," Christian Century, 26 April 1995, 454; Victoria Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer," available from United States Holocaust Memorial Museum web site: <http://www.ushmm.org/bonhoeffer/b6.htm>; Internet; accessed 9 December 2005.

5. Gushee, "Following Jesus to the Gallows," 28.

6. Burton F. Nelson, "Family, Friends & Co-Conspirators," Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 18.

7. Victor Shepherd, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer," available from Victor Shepherd web site: <http://www.vicotrshepherd.on.ca/Heritage/deitrich.htm>; Internet; accessed 9 December 2005.

8. Burton F. Nelson, "Pastor Bonhoeffer," Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 40.

9. Gushee, "Following Jesus to the Gallows," 28; Geffrey B. Kelly, "The Life and Death of a Modern Martyr," Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 8.

10. Gushee, "Following Jesus to the Gallows," 28.

11. Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer;" <http://www.ushmm.org/bonhoeffer/b3.htm>; Gushee, "Following Jesus to the Gallows," 29.

12. "Daring Thoughts," Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 12; Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer;" <http://www.ushmm.org/bonhoeffer/b3.htm>.

13. Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer," <http://www.ushmm.org/bonhoeffer/b1.htm>.

14. Ibid., <http://www.ushmm.org/bonhoeffer/b4.htm>.

15. "Bonhoeffer, Agent of Grace"; available from PBS web site: <http://www.pbs.org/opb/bonhoeffer/man/timeline.html>; Internet; accessed 17 January 2006.

16. Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer," <http://www.ushmm.org/bonhoeffer/b4.htm>; "Bonhoeffer, Agent of Grace."

17. Gushee, "Following Jesus to the Gallows," 30; Geffrey B. Kelly, "The Life and Death of a Modern Martyr," Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 10.

18. Gushee, "Following Jesus to the Gallows," 30; Kelly, "The Life and Death of a Modern Martyr," 10; Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer," <www.ushmm.org/honhoeffer/b5.htm>.

19. Gushee, "Following Jesus to the Gallows," 30.

20. Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer," <http://www.ushmm.org/bonhoeffer/b5.htm>.

21. "Bonhoeffer, Agent of Grace," <http://www.pbs.org/opb/bonhoeffer/man/timeline.html>.

22. Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer's Ecumenical Vision." 454.

23. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, ed. Robert Coles (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1998), 53; Clifford Green, "Exploring Bonhoeffer's Writings," Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 34.

24. Kelly, "The Life and Death of a Modern Martyr," 8; Bonhoeffer, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, ed. Robert Coles, 108.

25. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Letters and Papers From Prison, ed. Eberhard Bethge (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1953); Green, "Exploring Bonhoeffer's Writings," 35.

26. Wayne Whitson Floyd, Jr., "Bonhoeffer's Many Faces," Christian Century, 26 April 1995, 446; "Bonhoeffer, Agent of Grace," <http://www.pbs.org/opb/bonhoeffer/resources,/collections.html>.

27. Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer's Ecumenical Vision," 454.

28. Ibid.

29. Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer," <http://www.ushmm.org/bonhoeffer/b1.htm>.

30. Ibid.

31. Barnett, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer's Ecumenical Vision," 454.

32. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Discipleship, rev. ed. (New York, NY: Collier Books, 1963), in forward by G. A Bell, 7; Nelson, "Family Friends & Co-Conspirators," 18.

33. Richard V. Pierard, "Radical Resistance," Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 30.

34. Ibid.

35. Gushee, "Following Jesus to the Gallows," 32.

36. Albert Schoenheff, "Dietrich Bonhoeffer: The Message of a Life"; available from Faith Streams web site <http://www.faithstreams.com/ME2/Sites/dirmod.asp?sid>; Internet; accessed 17 January 2006.

37. "Bonhoeffer, Agent of Grace," <http://www.pbs.org/opb/bonhoeffer/man/index.html>.

38. Gushee, "Following Jesus to the Gallows," 28.

39. Ibid; Pierard, "Radical Resistance," 31.

40. E.N.I., "Bonhoeffer Exonerated of Treason Charge," Christian Century, 9 October 1996, 929.

41. Geoffrey Hill, "Christmas Trees," Tenebrae (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1979), 41.


Bibliography

— Primary Sources —

Bethge, Eberhard. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, A Biography, ed. Victoria J. Barnett, rev. ed. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2000.

¾¾¾¾¾This is a lengthy and comprehensive biography of Bonhoeffer by his close friend, Eberhard Bethge. I consider this to be a primary source because Bethge lived during Bonhoeffer's lifetime and knew him personally. It contained many photos of Bonhoeffer and his family and included many details not found in other sources.

Bethge, Eberhard and Phillip M. Hofinga. "My Friend Dietrich." Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 40.

¾¾¾¾¾This article, written by Bonhoeffer's friend and colleague, Eberhard Bethge, contains a brief overview of some of the lessons learned from Bonhoeffer's life during the decades since his death.

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. The Cost of Discipleship, rev. ed. New York, NY: Collier Books, 1963.

¾¾¾¾¾This is one of the most famous of Bonhoeffer's writings, providing a detailed analysis of the Sermon on the Mount and its application to modern Christians. It was originally written by Bonhoeffer in the mid-1930s and published in Germany in 1937. It helped me to understand the depth and significance of Bonhoeffer's theological beliefs. It also contained a forward by a former church pastor who was a colleague of Bonhoeffer. I quoted from this forward in my paper.

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, ed. Robert Cole. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1998.

¾¾¾¾¾This is a collection of some of Bonhoeffer's shorter, but better-known writings, including "Life Together," written during his years teaching at the Finkenwalde seminary; "Ethics," written between 1940 and 1943 but never finished, which outlined his belief that Christians must act responsibly on behalf of others, even when faced with persecution; and "After Ten Years," an essay written to co-conspirators to remind them of what they were fighting for. These short pieces were very insightful into how powerful and inspiring many of Bonhoeffer's writings were.

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. Letters and Papers from Prison, ed. Eberhard Bethge and R.H Fuller. New York, NY: Macmillan Press, 1953.

¾¾¾¾¾This is a collection of letters Bonhoeffer wrote to friends and family while in prison from 1943 until his death in 1945. This paper helped me to understand how Bonhoeffer felt during his imprisonment and how he continued to focus on his beliefs.

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. The Martyred Christian, ed. Joan Winmill Brown. New York, NY: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1983.

¾¾¾¾¾This is a collection of 160 of Bonhoeffer's lesser-known writings and poems. It contains his poem "Stations on the Road to Freedom," which I cite in my paper.

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. True Patriotism, ed. Edwin H. Robertson. New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1973.

¾¾¾¾¾This is a collection of letters, lectures and other writings of Bonhoeffer from 1939 to 1945. The writings cover several events in Bonhoeffer's own words which I did not find in other sources. For example, it includes letters regarding "Operation 7," a plot he was involved in to smuggle Jews out of Germany, accounts of his arrest and some of his interrogations by the Gestapo, part of a play which wrote in prison, and an account by fellow prisoners of his last days. It was very helpful in reading about these events from first-hand sources.

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. A Testament to Freedom, ed. Geffrey B. Kelly and E. Burton Nelson. San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins Publishers, 1995.

¾¾¾¾¾This collection of Bonhoeffer writings includes dozens of sermons, lectures, poems, letters and other writings not generally published elsewhere. This collection was published to coincide with the fiftieth anniversary of Bonhoeffer's death, and to provide Bonhoeffer scholars with additional writings reflecting his theology. It helped me understand that Bonhoeffer was a prolific writer, covering a vast array of topics and formats.

"Daring Thoughts." Christian History, Vol. 10, No.4 (1991): 12.

¾¾¾¾¾This short essay provided excerpts from Bonhoeffer's critical lecture, "The Church and the Jewish Question." I considered it a primary source because it quoted directly from Bonhoeffer's actual writings. It was helpful to give a more complete account of this lecture that I was able to obtain from other sources.

"Ending Bonhoeffer's Traitor Status." Christian Century, 6 March 1996, 257.

¾¾¾¾¾This article discussed why it was important for Bonhoeffer's traitor status to be officially overturned by a German court. I included this as a primary resource because it was written contemporaneously with efforts to absolve Bonhoeffer from his treason charge.

E.N.I. "Bonhoeffer exonerated of treason charge." Christian Century, 9 October 1996, 929.

¾¾¾¾¾This was a news account of Bonhoeffer's exoneration from treason charges in 1995. I included this as a primary resource because it was written contemporaneously with efforts to absolve Bonhoeffer from his treason charge.

Holocaust Heroes web site. "Bonhoeffer Deserves to Be Named 'Righteous Among the Nations.'" Available from <www.holocaust-heroes.com/bonhoeffer.html>. Internet; accessed 16 January 2006.

¾¾¾¾¾This is a summary of a petition filed in 1999 requesting that Dietrich Bonhoeffer be recognized by Israel's Yad Vashem as a "Righteous Gentile" for his work to save Jews. I included this as a primary resource because it includes a copy of the affidavit of Dr. Eberhard Bethge, Bonhoeffer friend and biographer, in support of the petition. The affidavit details how Bonhoeffer jeopardized his life in helping to smuggle Jews from Germany to Switzerland during is time with the Abwehr. It was helpful because it emphasized that Bonhoeffer's sole reason for his work with Abwehr was to provide a cover to help him accomplish his rescue of Jews and to defeat the Nazis.

I Knew Dietrich Bonhoeffer, ed. Wolf-Dieter Zimmermann and Ronald Gregor Smith. New York, NY: Harper & Row, 1966.

¾¾¾¾¾This is a wonderful collection of remembrances of Bonhoeffer by family members, friends, students, colleagues and fellow prisoners. It was one of the most helpful sources I read because of the details it provided about Bonhoeffer as a person and how he impacted those around him.

Schoenherr, Albrecht. "Dietrich Bonhoeffer: The Message of a Life." Available from FaithStreams web site: <http://www.faithstreams.com/ME2/Sites/dirmod.asp?sid>. Internet; accessed 17 January 2006.

¾¾¾¾¾This is a wonderful essay by a former student of Bonhoeffer's who later became a church leader in post-war Germany. It gives insight into what it meant for someone from Bonhoeffer's upper-middle class background to study theology, and how his upbringing instilled in him a strong self-discipline. Most importantly, it discussed Bonhoeffer's beliefs that led him to oppose the Nazis treatment of the Jews, how he knew what leaving America in 1939 was likely to mean for him, and how his faith allowed him to remain so calm and faithful in the face of his imprisonment and death.

— Secondary Sources —

Barnett, Victoria. "Dietrich Bonhoeffer." Available from United States Holocaust Memorial Museum web site: <http://www.ushmm.org/bonhoeffer/b1.htm>. Internet; accessed 9 December 2005.

¾¾¾¾¾This was one of the more helpful articles in understanding Bonhoeffer's true legacy resulting from his resistance to the Nazis. It also provided helpful analysis that I did not find in other sources.

Barnett, Victoria. "Dietrich Bonhoeffer's Ecumenical Vision." Christian Century, 26 April 1995, 454.

¾¾¾¾¾This article focuses mainly on Bonhoeffer's stance against the Nazi party's involvement with the German churches, and Bonhoeffer's disappointment with the Church's response to the anti-Semitism.

"Bonhoeffer, Agent of Grace." Available from the PBS web site: <http://www.pbs.org/opb/bonhoeffer/man/index.html>. Internet; accessed 17 January 2006.

¾¾¾¾¾This website by PBS is designed primarily to promote PBS's 2001 film about Bonhoeffer. However, it also contained a very comprehensive biography of Bonhoeffer, an extensive list of sources used in the making of the film, a timeline of Bonhoeffer's life and an important discussion of Bonhoeffer's legacy. Not only were these sources very helpful, but it also contained a quote about Bonhoeffer from Martin Luther King, Jr., which I did not find elsewhere.

"Dietrich Bonhoeffer," Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 22.

¾¾¾¾¾This was a relatively short yet helpful article which listed in chronological order major events in Bonhoeffer's life.

"Dietrich Bonhoeffer." Available from Wikipedia web site: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer>. Internet; accessed 9 December 2005.

¾¾¾¾¾This article was about early influences in Bonhoeffer's life, mainly family members.

Floyd, Jr., Wayne Whitson. "Bonhoeffer's many faces." Christian Century, 26 April 1995, 444.

¾¾¾¾¾This article discusses inconsistencies between Bonhoeffer's opposition to Germany's anti-Semitism, and some of his writings. It also mentioned a new sixteen volume work of Bonhoeffer's writings which is in the process of being published.

Galli, Mark and Barbara Galli. "Did You Know." Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 28.

¾¾¾¾¾This article related 27 little-known facts about Bonhoeffer, which helped me gain a better understanding of his early life and family background.

Green, Clifford. "Exploring Bonhoeffer's Writings" Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 34.

¾¾¾¾¾This article gave a short description of some of Bonhoeffer's more important works listed in chronological order. It showed me how Bonhoeffer's thought changed over the years.

Gushee, David P. "Following Jesus to the Gallows." Christianity Today, Vol. 39, No. 4 (1995): 26.

¾¾¾¾¾This article gave a very thorough overview of Bonhoeffer's entire life, and included many people and events which deeply influenced Bonhoeffer's beliefs. I quoted from it many times in my paper.

Hill, Geoffrey. Tenebrae. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1979.

¾¾¾¾¾This is a collection of poems by well-known British poet, Geoffrey Hill. It includes the poem, "Christmas Trees," regarding Dietrich Bonhoeffer, which I used in my paper.

Hoffman, Peter. "German Resistance to Hitler." Available from Bonhoeffer Documentary web site: <http://www.bonhoeffer.com/bak3.htm>. Internet; accessed 17 January 2006.

¾¾¾¾¾This article provided background information for the award-winning PBS documentary on Bonhoeffer, which will be aired nationally on February 6, 2006, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Bonhoeffer's birth. The Hoffman article provided some unique, interesting insights into the political climate faced by Bonhoeffer and all of Germany from the time of Hitler's rise to power in 1933 until the end of the war, and a variety of resistance efforts during that time.

Kappelman, Todd. "Dietrich Bonhoeffer, The Man and his Mission." Available from Probe Ministries Web site: <http://www.probe.org/content/view/57/91/>. Internet; accessed 9 December 2005.

¾¾¾¾¾This article examined three of Bonhoeffer's most influential works, "The Cost of Discipleship," "Ethics," and "Letters and Papers From Prison." It helped me to understand some of the important aspects of these writings.

Kelly, Geffrey B. "The Life and Death of a Modern Martyr." Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 8.

¾¾¾¾¾This article provided a good overview of Bonhoeffer, and emphasizes the things which shaped his theology. I quoted from this article in my paper.

McLaughlin, Matt. "Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945)." Available from Boston Collaborative Encyclopedia of Western Theology web site: <http://people.bu.edu/wwildman/WeirdWildWeb/coarses/mwt/dictionary/mwt_themes_780>. Internet; accessed 9 December 2005.

¾¾¾¾¾This article dealt with one of Bonhoeffer's works, "Ethics". It also discussed Bonhoeffer's concern over several theological issues.

Nelson, Burton F. "Family, Friends & Co-Conspirators." Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 18.

¾¾¾¾¾This provided biographical information on Bonhoeffer's important relatives, friends, and church associates. It was helpful in putting these people in perspective in his life.

Nelson, Burton F. "Pastor Bonhoeffer." Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 38.

¾¾¾¾¾This article was mainly about Bonhoeffer's experiences as a minister. It had detailed accounts of events in his life, which, from his actions, gives me a clearer look at Bonhoeffer's personality and attitude toward others.

Pierard, Richard V. "Radical Resistance." Christian History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1991): 30.

¾¾¾¾¾This article told of Bonhoeffer's initial stance against the Nazi's during their rise to power, leading ultimately to his death. It gave me a very clear view of the disgust which Bonhoeffer had for the Nazi infestation of Germany.

Shepherd, Victor. "Dietrich Bonhoeffer." Available from Victor Shepherd web site: <http://www.victorshepherd.on.ca/Heritage/deitrich.htm>. Internet; accessed 9 December 2005.

¾¾¾¾¾This article discussed in more detail Bonhoeffer's decision to become a theologian, and the steps which he took to be ordained a Lutheran pastor. It also discussed the impact his ministering had on fellow prisoners. It contained an important quote which I used in my paper.

"Who Is Dietrich Bonhoeffer?" Available from the International Dietrich Bonhoeffer Society web site at <http://www.dbonhoeffer.org/node/3>. Internet; accessed 17 January 2006.

¾¾¾¾¾This article provided a comprehensive overview of Bonhoeffer's life by the Society organized "to preserve the memory and enhance the knowledge of Dietrich Bonhoeffer and his mission." This website was also helpful because it contained a listing of activities planned this year to mark the centennial of Bonhoeffer's birth in February 2005

Zoba, Wendy Murray. "A Crisis of Discipleship." Christianity Today. 3 April 1995, 31.

¾¾¾¾¾This article referenced a poem Bonhoeffer wrote during his last few days which I used in my paper.

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