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History Teacher Certification Standards in the States

Sarah Drake Brown
Florida State University

DURING THE LAST TWENTY YEARS, history educators have noted a sea change in the concern expressed by scholars, policymakers, and the general public about the teaching and learning of history in schools. The 1983 report, A Nation at Risk, was a catalyst for this movement with its focused attention and support for a core curriculum based on academic subjects. Subsequent movements for national goals, national standards, and history specific testing in the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) illustrated the influence of A Nation at Risk and the growing concern for inclusion of history in a substantive, strengthened academic core curriculum. In concert with a rising interest in history education, concern developed about the quality of teacher education and teacher certification. Many researchers, theorists, and specialists voiced their perspective on the issue of teacher certification.1 Of particular interest for history educators is the extent to which teachers of history are certified to teach the discipline and specifically what being "certified" entails. Given this context, in the spring of 2002 John J. Patrick, now professor emeritus at Indiana University, and I began to investigate the state of history education nationwide. Our study addressed teacher certification in history; content standards for teachers; content standards for students; high school graduation and exit examination requirements in history; assessments in history; and resources and organizations that are available at the state level for history teachers.2 During the fall of 2005 I revisited the areas of teacher certification and standards for teachers. This essay focuses on our 2002 findings pertaining to teacher certification and content standards for teachers and changes that have occurred over the past three years. 1
      In order to assemble the data necessary to complete this study, we broke our research into several steps. The research process involved independent searches for data, preliminary public presentations of initial findings, and early contact with numerous representatives in history education from each of the states and the District of Columbia. We utilized the websites created and maintained by the various departments of education and certifying bodies in each of the states. An abundant amount of information now appears online, and we were able to employ these resources to collect much of the necessary data. We used the information to compile individual reports for each state, and we organized the reports into sections based on the categories mentioned above. After writing these reports, we moved into the second stage of our research process. 2
      We decided to publicize the initial study in its nascent stages to encourage conversations about the project and to receive as much feedback as possible. Therefore, in November 2002 we presented a report at the annual meeting of the National Council for the Social Studies in Phoenix, Arizona. We also reported on our project at the American Historical Association's annual meeting in Chicago, Illinois, in January 2003. By April 2003, at the Organization of American Historians' annual meeting in Memphis, Tennessee, we were ready to reveal many of our findings, and we distributed drafts of tables consisting of compiled data. At the Memphis session we also shared a generalizations sheet that summarized the key areas of the study and highlighted items of significance pertaining to certification, teacher and student content standards, graduation requirements, and assessments in history. On June 28, 2003, we provided an overview of the entire study and distributed a Summary of Findings at the conference, Innovations in Collaboration: A School-University Model to Enhance History Teaching, K-16 in Alexandria, Virginia. 3
      The third stage of our research occurred concurrently with the presentations made in Phoenix, Chicago, and Memphis. After the completion of the individual state reports, we sent copies of each report and a response sheet to history education specialists in each state. Contacts in the states included:
  • National Council for the Social Studies State Executive Directors and Boards.
  • National Council for History Education State Representatives.
  • Members of the Council of State Social Studies Specialists (an NCSS group).
  • Certification Offices and/or State Departments of Education.
The rate of response we received varied. In some states as many as three individuals completed a response form and provided feedback regarding the accuracy of their state's report. From eight states and Washington, D.C., we received no response. A version of our 2002–2003 study has appeared on the OAH website since the summer of 2004.3 In the follow-up survey conducted in the fall of 2005, the members of the Council of State Social Studies Specialists, state Departments of Education, or certification offices provided updated information regarding teacher certification and standards for teachers. Let us now turn to two examples of the information we gathered in the initial national survey on history education and the two examples we reexamined this past fall: certification of history teachers and standards for history teachers.		 4
   

Findings About Certification of History Teachers

 
      In the United States, each state assumes responsibility for the licensure of its professionals. State departments of education, boards of education, or professional standards boards engage in the licensure of teachers. Teacher licensure, often referred to in the lexicon interchangeably as certification, establishes and sets policies designed to distinguish between individuals who are qualified to teach and those who are not. While specific rules and procedures for certification vary from state to state, in general states follow similar guidelines. State legislatures often establish laws pertaining to teacher licensure, colleges and universities submit proposals for "certification programs" based on state guidelines, and the state grants the institution approval. Once the approved college or university in the state pronounces a student fit to teach, the state usually deems the student "certified," and the individual is recognized as a licensed teacher. However, several factors complicate this seemingly simple process. 5
      Considerable variation exists among the states in regard to certification.4 When examining the systems established by the states, we found that four approaches prevailed. First, some states often require teacher candidates to demonstrate they have taken a certain number of hours in a discipline or field of study. These hours might or might not correspond with an academic major or minor. Second, some states are moving away from course hours specifications and instead require their licensed teachers to have demonstrated proficiency in the subject. To demonstrate proficiency, candidates often complete portfolios and pass examinations as required by the state. Third, as mentioned previously, many states establish laws relevant to certification and then allow universities to create approved certification programs for their students. These university-based requirements often vary within the state. And fourth, many states insist that their teachers pass state administered content tests in order to be certified. While content tests can be valuable, the issue becomes problematic when passing a test in a content area enables one to be certified to teach in that area even when the individual lacks coursework or a demonstration of proficiency in regard to the subject matter. 6
      To complicate matters further, states that have passed legislation regarding requirements for teacher certification often bury their low requirements amidst claims of high standards. According to data obtained through state department of education websites, no state requires teachers to complete a major in history to be able to teach history courses in our nation's schools. Having made this statement, it is important to note two important words: state and requires. Many universities require a major in history as part of their state-approved certification programs. States may recommend that teacher candidates hold a major, or states may recommend that significant hours be taken in history in order to be certified. The states' policies and calls for a history major, in essence, amount to little more than suggestions since a major in history is not required by any state. Some states also do not specify the number of hours in history that are required for elementary licensure. 7
      As in many other states, Indiana has made recent changes to its teacher certification requirements. Indiana's certifying body, the former Professional Standards Board, used to be separate from the Department of Education. As of July 1, 2005, certification is the responsibility of the Division of Professional Standards, which is now housed in Indiana's Department of Education. Like most states, Indiana offers grade level certification as well as subject area certification for its teachers. Candidates for an elementary license in Indiana must complete 124 hours of undergraduate coursework. According to the state, subject matter concentration requirements in social studies are to develop in teachers an "understanding of contemporary civilization, economics and government, current social problems and modern family life and shall always include a course in United States history and a course in world civilization. An integrative approach shall be used whenever possible."5 Therefore, elementary school teachers in Indiana must have 6 hours in history, but with an emphasis on current problems and modern life. A junior high/middle school endorsement is possible for elementary school teachers upon completion of 18 hours of coursework in the subject area. 8
      Junior high/middle school teachers must also complete 124 hours of classes to be licensed. Teachers must have a primary and supporting area of concentration, with 24 hours required in the primary area and 18 hours required in the supporting area. The specific statement on social studies in Indiana's licensing requirements reads, "This area shall be designed to develop understanding of interrelationships of disciplines within the social studies. Every effort shall be made to use an interdisciplinary approach to study economics, United States history, world civilization, geography, government, and current social problems."6 While the requirement of at least 18 hours in social studies is heartening, the state makes no mention of minimal requirements in history. Therefore, it would be possible for a teacher with a junior high/middle school certificate in social studies to be licensed while having completed no coursework in history. Minimal hour requirements would represent a stronger commitment to historical study than does the current language proclaiming that "every effort" shall be made. 9
      Secondary licensure in Indiana is granted after the completion of a 124 hour teacher education program. A major is required. Indiana's social studies major consists of 52 hours. Candidates are required to complete 18 hours in one primary area and 12 hours in each of two supporting areas. They must also complete 10 hours of "diversified social studies" not taken from the primary or supporting areas. Specific teaching areas identified by Indiana include: anthropology, economics, geography, government, psychology, sociology, United States history, and world civilizations. Therefore, in order to teach United States history, Indiana teachers must have at least 12 hours in United States history coursework. To teach world history, they must have at least 12 hours in world history courses. To obtain a social studies minor, candidates need 24 hours, broken down as 15 hours in one of the eight areas listed above and 9 hours of diversified coursework from 3 of the other areas (in essence 3 hours in each of 3 areas).7 10
      In sum, elementary school teachers in Indiana must complete 6 hours in history to teach social studies, junior high/middle school teachers could teach the subject with no coursework specifically in history, and high school teachers could teach history with a scant 12 hours in the discipline. These 12 hours represent thirty-three percent of the coursework required of one holding a 36 hour major in history and only twenty three percent of the 52 hours required for Indiana's social studies major. To be blunt, a teacher teaching five preps of United States history (one hundred percent of his/her time) could have devoted only twenty three percent of his/her certification coursework to the study of the discipline. In the worst case, a teacher with a social studies minor could be assigned to teach history courses after completing only three hours of coursework in history. 11
      It is well known that most universities require all of their students to complete, at the minimum, survey courses in many areas in order to fulfill general studies requirements. Some universities in Indiana do go beyond the state's requirements and specify that their graduates must have a major in history or have taken a certain number of hours in history in order to be recommended to the state for certification. Regardless of the good intentions and practices of the universities, the point holds that at the state level Indiana does not deem it necessary to require the high school teachers it allows to teach history to have more than 12 (or possibly only 3) hours of content knowledge in the discipline. 12
      Indiana is not the only state in which this situation exists. In Florida, teachers are certified in social science for grades 5–9 or 6–12. As of July 1, 2003, newly certified social science teachers in Florida have two options. They can hold a bachelor's degree with a major in social science, social studies, history, political science, geography, economics, psychology, or sociology, or they can hold a bachelor's degree with 30 hours in social science or social studies. These hours are broken down to include 6 hours in United States history and "coursework" in western civilization or European history and Asian, African, Latin American, or Middle Eastern history. In essence, this degree therefore requires 12 hours in history.8 13
      States' requirements are also often misleading. In Nebraska, history teachers in grades 7–12 must have a history endorsement consisting of 36 hours including 30 hours in history and at least 6 hours in one or more social science areas. One would be led to believe that Nebraska's policy represents high certification standards. That is, however, not the case. A social studies endorsement of 60 hours in all social science fields will also certify one as a history teacher. The state does not specify how many hours of the 60 required must be in history; it leaves that matter to universities.9 Many other states exhibit requirements similar to those of the states singled out in this report. 14
   

Findings about Content Standards for Teachers

 
      National History Standards emerged in the 1990s as part of the federal government's Goals 2000 agenda. History was emphasized in Goal 3. Forty-eight of the fifty states have created content standards for students; these standards exhibit variations in emphasis on history. States have also established content standards for their teachers. Like state standards for students, standards for teachers vary considerably in their requirements. 15
      States have taken multiple approaches in their development of standards for teachers. Such states as Alaska and Iowa have standards for teachers, but these standards are not content specific.10 Some states use their certification requirements as standards; other states refer to the specifications designated by the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). Finally, an increasing number of states have developed standards that are discipline specific; the approaches taken and the quality of these standards varies greatly. 16
      The content standards in history for two states, Indiana and Illinois, provide an example of the differences that exist among the states. In Indiana there are thirteen standards for teachers of social studies. In each standard, instructors are expected to demonstrate performances, knowledge, and dispositions related to a specific teaching area or practice. Indiana's content standards for teachers, while having a designation for history (historical perspectives), actually fail to specify content knowledge teachers should possess. Among the three descriptors written in the knowledge section of Indiana's historical perspectives standard, teachers are expected to "identify and describe selected historical periods and patterns of change within and across cultures." 17
      Illinois has developed core content standards for all social science teachers and specific standards designations for six disciplines in this area. The history designation consists of eight standards that refer to content knowledge in United States history, world history, and Illinois history. The first six standards address specific time periods about which teachers are expected to be knowledgeable, while standards seven and eight require teachers to be aware of comparative history and historical interpretations. Knowledge and performance indicators exist under each of the standards. While these knowledge and performance indicators are not overly specific, they do clearly require content knowledge and accompanying performance skills to be demonstrated by teachers. For example, under Standard 1, the performance indicator identifies a competent teacher as one who "assesses factors that contributed to the Age of Exploration and evaluates the consequences of the Columbian exchange." This indicator lacks specificity in its description of expectations; yet it describes what history teachers should know and be able to do to a greater extent than does the indicator in Indiana. Furthermore, when combined with indicators in Illinois' Standard 8, which relate to historical interpretation and historiography, it becomes clear that teachers are expected to be aware of and teach about differing interpretations and research in the discipline. The Indiana and Illinois examples illustrate that significant differences exist among the content standards for teachers in the states having history-specific standards. 18
   

Discrepancies Between Content Standards for Teachers and Students: The Cases of Indiana and Illinois

 
      To distinguish among the discrepancies that exist within states, we return to the previous examples of Indiana and Illinois and include information drawn from the portion of our study on student content standards. Indiana's content standards for teachers are vague and do not specify content. By contrast, Illinois' standards for teachers identify specific content knowledge and performance indicators for teachers. The opposite is true when it comes to each state's history content standards for students. Indiana's history content standards for students have been ranked among the top twelve nationally by the National Council for History Education. The state's standards have also received acclaim from reports issued in 2003 by Sheldon Stern and the late Paul Gagnon.11 For elementary and middle school students in Indiana (grades K-8), the academic standards in social studies consist of five categories of standards: history, civics and government, geography, economics, and individuals, society, and culture. At the high school level the standards are organized in terms of separate subjects or courses, and two separate documents exist for United States history and for world history and civilizations. 19
      Indiana's standards for students are grounded in the discipline of history and are content specific. Furthermore, they are designed to promote historical thinking in students. Specific standards are devoted to history at the high school level, and at the elementary and middle school level, history is consistently emphasized within the social studies standards. For example, by third grade students are expected to "develop simple timelines of events in the local communities" (chronological thinking) and to "explain why and how the local community was established, and identify founders and early settlers" (historical knowledge).12 By fourth grade the standards call for students to know specific historical content and to engage in historical thinking through chronological thinking, comprehension, analysis, interpretation, and research capabilities. For example, students are to "give examples of Indiana's increasing agricultural, industrial, and business development in the nineteenth century" while also "distinguish[ing] fact from opinion and fact from fiction in historical documents and other information resources."13 Content knowledge and engagement in historical thinking increases according to an age-appropriate level of complexity. 20
      The high school standards in United States history and world history and civilizations are organized chronologically. The United States history standards consist of nine categories of standards, eight of which pertain to periods in United States history with Standard 9 pertaining to historical research. The world history and civilizations document is made up of eleven categories of standards. The first ten categories of standards are organized as periods in world history, and the eleventh addresses historical research. Performance indicators are specified within each of the eleven categories. They demonstrate the discipline of history's connections to Indiana's other subject-specific academic standards in the social studies. For example, Indiana's World History Standard 10.3 requires students to:
Compare the totalitarian ideologies, institutions, and leaders of the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. Describe acts of oppression, including extermination by the Nazis and Soviet Communists against particular inhabitants within their countries, and acts of aggression against other countries during the 1930s by the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. (Civics and Government; Individuals, Society, and Culture)14
 The history standards also make frequent reference to primary sources, and examples are prevalent throughout the document to assist teachers and clarify the intent of the standards.		 21
      The Illinois Learning Standards consist of 30 Goals. Goals 14–18 pertain to the social sciences, and Goal 16 pertains to the teaching and learning of history. Within Goal 16, Illinois has established five standards. The general areas that the standards address apply to all grades, K-12, and the state has developed specifications across five grade clusters: early elementary, late elementary, middle/junior high, early high school, and late high school. The first standard, Standard A, requires students to "apply the skills of historical analysis and interpretation." The descriptions under this standard and the fact that Goal 16 pertains specifically to history, place Illinois in the category of a state whose standards are grounded in the discipline of history. After that major categorization, however, the similarity between Illinois' and Indiana's standards ends. 22
      Illinois places a framework of historical eras to be addressed in both United States and world history at the top of Goal 16. However, this periodization is Illinois' only attempt at an orderly chronological approach. Chronology is not readily apparent throughout the standards. While Standard A nudges students toward an engagement in historical thinking, Standards B through E are not content specific. Late elementary school students are asked to "describe how the European colonies in North America developed politically," and late high school students are expected to "describe how tensions in the modern world are affected by different political ideologies including democracy and totalitarianism." Content is at least mentioned and is not merely a list; but the standard lacks clarity, cogency, and depth.15 23
      The National Council for History Education judged the Illinois Standards to be deficient; subsequently, efforts were made to give the standards substance through performance descriptors. It must be noted that these performance descriptors provide specifications and examples of content knowledge that students in Illinois should have when studying history. In addition, the state has developed content specific classroom assessments to also assist teachers and students in meeting the more general standards outlined initially in Goal 16. In his 2003 report on state United States history standards, Sheldon Stern graded Illinois' standards as "F," and he noted that the state's performance descriptors again failed to provide teachers or students with specificity in regard to content knowledge.16 24
      It was our intent to acknowledge states that have successfully created standards that promote content knowledge in history and historical thinking and also to recognize states that have made or still need to make improvements. It is especially important to note the differences between the content standards for teachers in Indiana and Illinois and the content standards for students in such states as Indiana and Illinois. The quality of the standards for teachers versus that for the students is uneven in both states (strong content standards for students with weak standards for teachers in Indiana and acceptable standards for teachers and questionable standards for students in Illinois). 25
   

Concluding Comments about History Education in the United States

 
      Indiana has been used as an example of strong points and areas that could be improved with regard to history standards and teacher certification. Other states exhibit similar strengths and weaknesses, but the case of Indiana illustrates sharply the problem of disjunction between standards for students and teachers and standards for teacher certification. As has been noted in preceding sections, Indiana's student standards have received national recognition for their high quality in content and in historical thinking. While Indiana is strong in its history standards for students, weak areas exist. The certification requirements for Indiana teachers are disappointingly low given the content knowledge a teacher needs to teach the standards effectively. As licensure exists currently in the state, teachers at the high school level must complete only 12 hours in history to be certified to teach history. Middle school teachers can receive broad social studies certification in all of the areas of concentration that make up the social studies by only actually taking coursework in a primary and a secondary area, neither of which has to be history. Therefore, middle school teachers in Indiana can teach courses on United States history and world history without having received adequate preparation in content knowledge. Elementary school teachers need take only 6 hours in history. The standards for teachers do not alleviate this difficult situation. Indiana's standards for teachers in the social studies lack rigor and specificity. 26
      Indiana faces a situation in which it is placing high demands and expectations on its students without adequately preparing teachers to assist students in meeting these challenges. We cannot blame teachers for their inadequate preparation when they are merely following the policies established by governing bodies in the state. We must fault the state government. Suggestions and recommendations that teachers should major in a content area are not enough. States must establish stringent requirements for teachers, and they must develop content rich standards for teachers as well as for students if we are to truly educate our citizens. 27
      The No Child Left Behind Act required states to ensure that all teachers were "highly qualified" by the 2005–2006 school year. To be considered "highly qualified," a teacher must complete a major in an academic discipline or pass a content test. A major in history and adequate preparation in pedagogy will prepare teachers to teach the subject, but simply passing a test or concentrating in broad-field social studies will yield only more of the same problems we face today. Standards for teachers should also be as specific and content rich as the leading states' content standards for students. It makes little sense to establish strong standards for students and weak standards for teachers. The reverse is also nonsensical. Teachers and students work together in the learning process, and each group's respective standards must work in concert with those of the other group. 28
      Problems also abound in Indiana in regard to graduation requirements and assessment. Indiana offers four diplomas for its students. While United States history retains a prominent place in the curriculum (and is a graduation requirement in Indiana), world history suffers. Beginning with the 2006–2007 school year, students pursuing a general diploma in Indiana high schools need earn only 4 credits in the social studies in order to graduate. Two credits (semesters) are required in United States history, one credit is required in United States government, and one credit must be taken in "any" of the social studies courses. Although local districts may set more rigorous policies, no world history requirements exist for general students as mandated by the state. Should students who are not planning to attend college miss the opportunity to understand their place in space and time in the context of world civilizations? 29
      Students pursuing a Core 40 diploma (required for college) must earn 6 credits in the social studies. They must complete 2 credits in United States history, one credit in United States government, and two credits in world history/civilizations or two credits in geography/history of the world. The latter course must be taught by a licensed geography teacher, and it is to be taught in the context of world history from 1450 to the present.17 Neither the Core 40 diploma with technical honors nor the Core 40 diploma with academic honors offered by Indiana make any additional stipulations regarding requirements in the social studies.18 Indiana is not alone in its approach to requirements regarding world history. Many other states have established similarly low requirements.19 30
      The state also falls short in assessments. Indiana planned to assess 5th grade students in social studies by 2004, but the state's good intentions have come to nothing, and the assessment has been postponed due to a lack of funding. As it currently stands, the No Child Left Behind Act does not compel states to test students in history, the social sciences, or social studies. Many states, therefore, do not do so. Due to the stipulations of NCLB, states have developed assessments first in mathematics and reading, and will next turn to science.20 It would be foolish for the states not to prioritize in this way given the federal regulations. But where does that approach leave history? Can we rely on states to do what is "right" and essentially demand that history be taught by creating an assessment? 31
      During the summer of 2005, Massachusetts' Senator Edward Kennedy indicated that he wants history added to NCLB when the act comes up for reauthorization in 2007. While admittedly too much emphasis on testing has the potential to diminish creative teaching in the classroom, including history in the NCLB act for assessments would improve its status in schools simply because in our current era of assessment and accountability, the disciplines that are tested are perceived as being important. The potential for excellent teaching remains if we simultaneously improve our certification standards because teachers educated in pedagogical content knowledge will not have to resort to "teaching to the test." Finally, required assessment will yield useful research data. While tests can be problematic because they are, in essence, often designed to reveal what students do not know, they could if properly designed provide educators with information regarding students' understanding of durable knowledge and their ability to "do history." 32
      As is evident from the information gathered in this survey, states that are strong in specific areas of history education do not necessarily demonstrate strength across the board. While positive movements in regard to history education exist in many states, there is significant room for improvement. The time to improve history education is now. Concern about history education has reached a high point in recent times, and we must take advantage of the public's interest and recognition of the importance of history. In 1913, the editors of The History Teacher's Magazine urged history teachers to "be prepared to justify their subject, both in content and method if it is to be retained in our school curricula." The editors (who were members of the American Historical Association) proclaimed, "We are living in times when the historians must set their own house in order if they do not wish it to be remodeled without their consent by outsiders."21 Historians and history teachers failed in this endeavor in 1913. We must not fail today. 33


Notes

1. For examples, see The Abell Foundation, Teacher Certification Reconsidered: Stumbling for Quality (Baltimore: The Abell Foundation, 2001). Retrieved 11/17/05 from <http://www.abell.org/pubsitems/ed_cert_1101.pdf>; Linda Darling-Hamond, "Research and Rhetoric on Teacher Certification: A Response to 'Teacher Certification Reconsidered,'" Education Policy Analysis Archives 10, no. 36 (6 September 2002). Retrieved 11/17/05 from <http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n36.html>; Kate Walsh, Teacher Certification Reconsidered: Stumbling for Quality—A Rejoinder (Baltimore: The Abell Foundation, 2001). Retrieved 11/17/05 from <http://www.abell.org/pubsitems/ed_cert_rejoinder_ 1101.pdf>; Emily Feistritzer, and David Chester, Alternative Teacher Certification: A State-by-State Analysis 2004 (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Information, 2004) accessed online on 11/17/05 from < http://www.teachnow.org/frmResultsOfSurvey.asp >; G. Williamson McDiarmid and Susan Wilson, "An Exploration of the Subject Matter Knowledge of Alternate Route Teachers: Can We Assume They Know Their Subject?" Journal of Teacher Education, 42, no. 2 (1991): 93–103; Linda Darling-Hammond, Arthur E. Wise, and Stephen P. Klein, A License to Teach: Raising Standards for Teaching (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999); Wayne Dumas, Sam Evans, and Tom Weibe, "Minimum State Standards for Secondary Social Studies Teacher Licensure: A National Update," Social Studies 88, no. 4 (1997).

2. The content of this essay is drawn from a paper by Sarah Drake Brown and John J. Patrick, "History Education in the United States: A Study of Teacher Certification and State-Based Standards and Assessments for Teachers and Students" presented at the conference, Innovations in Collaboration: A School-University Model to Enhance History Teaching, K-16, in Alexandria, VA, June 28, 2003. See also Sarah Drake Brown, "State Certification Requirements for History Teachers" ERIC Digest/Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education, EDO-SO-2003-14; Sarah Drake Brown, "History Standards in the United States" ERIC Digest/Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education, EDO-SO-2003-13; Sarah Drake Brown, "World History in the Curriculum," History Matters! (November 2003).

3. See <http://www.oah.org/reports/surveys/50state/index.html> and the published text, Sarah Drake Brown and John J. Patrick, History Education in the United States: A Survey of Teacher Certification and State-Based Standards and Assessments for Teachers and Students (Washington, D.C.: American Historical Association and Organization of American Historians, 2004).

4. It should be noted that despite variation among the states in certification requirements, 44 states plus Washington, D.C., Guam, and Puerto Rico have signed the NASDTEC (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification) Interstate Contract for Reciprocity. In addition, some states accept teachers' credentials from another state if they graduated from an NCATE (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education) approved institution. Agreements among states also exist through NERC (Northeast Regional Credential, including Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, and Vermont) and the MOINKSA (Missouri, Oklahoma, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, South Dakota, and Arkansas) Agreement. Retrieved on 11/17/05 from the National Center for Alternative Certification at <http://www.teachnow.org/default.cfm>.

5. Retrieved 11/13/05 from <http://www.in.gov/legislative/iac/T05150/A00010. PDF>, 5.

6. Retrieved 11/13/05 from <http://www.in.gov/legislative/iac/T05150/A00010. PDF>, 7.

7. Retrieved 11/13/05 from <http://www.in.gov/legislative/iac/T05150/A00010. PDF>, 35–36.

8. Retrieved 11/17/05 from <http://www.fldoe.org/edcert/rules/6A-4-0332.asp>.

9. Phone conversation with representative from the Nebraska Department of Education, 11/10/2005.

10. Retrieved 11/17/05 from <http://www.eed.state.ak.us/standards/pdf/teacher.pdf>; phone conversation with the licensure consultant from Iowa's Board of Educational Examiners, 10/18/05.

11. See Sheldon M. Stern, Effective State Standards for U.S. History: A 2003 Report Card (Washington, D.C.: Thomas B. Fordham Institute, 2003); Paul Gagnon, Educating Democracy: State Standards to Ensure a Civic Core (Washington, D.C.: Albert Shanker Institute, 2003).

12. Indiana Department of Education, Indiana Academic Standards, 2001, Grade 3 Standards, 31.

13. Indiana Department of Education, Indiana Academic Standards, 2001, Grade 4 Standards, 36.

14. Indiana Department of Education, Indiana Academic Standards, 2001, World History and Civilization, 12.

15. Illinois Learning Standards, Goal 16—History. Retrieved 11/17/05 from <http://www.isbe.state.il.us/ils/social_science/pdf/goal16.pdf>.

16. Sheldon M. Stern, Effective State Standards for U.S. History: A 2003 Report Card (Washington, D.C.: Thomas B. Fordham Institute, 2003).

17. See <http://www.doe.state.in.us/core40/pdf/q_and_a.pdf>, 7. Retrieved 11/21/05.

18. See <http://www.doe.state.in.us/core40/pdf/Core40DiplReqsComp.pdf and http://www.doe.state.in.us/core40/pdf/diploma_requirements.pdf>. Retrieved 11/21/05.

19. Robert B. Bain and Tamara L. Shreiner, "Issues and Options in Creating a National Assessment in World History," The History Teacher 38, no. 2 (February 2005): 241–271.

20. Indiana currently tests science in grades 5 and 7, and the state plans to introduce testing in science in grade 9 during the 2007–2008 school year. See <http://www.doe.state.in.us/publications/pdf_ineducator/ineducator090705.pdf>. Retrieved 11/21/05.

21. "All of History or Only Topics?" The History Teacher's Magazine 4, no. 4 (1913): 103.

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