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A Study Guide for Stephen B. Oates'
The Fires of Jubilee: Nat Turner's Fierce Rebellion

Ron Briley
Sandia Preparatory School

THE SUBJECT OF SLAVERY is a difficult one for many teachers of American history, who, seeking to avoid controversy and contemporary racial antagonism, sometimes give less than satisfactory attention to this central chapter of the American past. Slavery may be shortchanged in favor of Civil War battlefield heroics as teachers attempt to avoid the phone call from a parent who is concerned that dredging up this dark chapter of American history will exacerbate racial conflict among students and provide them with a negative image of the United States. Some white teachers and students suggest that studying slavery only stirs up resentment by black students and guilt by young whites who have nothing to do with slavery. However, this very argument demonstrates why the institution of slavery must be at the core of the history curriculum, for the shadow which slavery continues to cast upon American society and race relations raises serious questions about the American dream which young people must address as they become active participants in a democratic society. The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans underscores this point only too well. 1
      If we accept the study of slavery as a given, then what should be covered in this curriculum? Certainly, the role played by slavery in the political debates leading to the Civil War deserves attention, but the institution of slavery and the issues of racial control accompanying American slavery must remain the focus of the curriculum. Consequetly, American history courses in the schools must address topics such as the introduction of slavery into the Americas and Colonial Virginia; the trans-Atlantic slave trade and middle passage; the West African origins of enslaved peoples; slavery in the Caribbean; the emergence of slave codes and law; the division of labor in the rice, tobacco, and cotton plantations; the impact of the American Revolution , the Constitution and abolitionism upon domestic slaves vs. field hands; the positive defense of slavery; the impact of the cotton gin and expansion of slavery; the internal slave trade; the class structure of the South; the sexual exploitation of slaves; and the coercive aspects of the institution. 2
      These topics just listed readily suggest themselves. However, what is often missing from the study of slavery in the schools is a sense of black agency, and this explains why some African-Americans students are opposed to the study of slavery and complain that it produces a sense of shame. Accordingly, subjects such as the development of an African-American culture and family, along with slave resistance to their status and treatment must be an integral part of any examination of slavery. Students must be exposed to the courageous acts of sabotage, deception, running away, and rebellion by which the slaves resisted their white oppressors. Perhaps slave insurrections are the most inflammatory subject for many teachers and students but students should be aware of the legacy of grass roots resistance running from the aborted rebellions of Denmark Vesey and Gabriel Prosser to the successful slave revolt in Santo Domingo (Haiti) and the most bloody insurrection in the United States: Nat Turner's revolt in Southampton County, Virginia in August, 1831, which resulted in the death of nearly seventy whites and over two hundred blacks killed in retaliation. 3
      While Nat Turner's revolt was not pretty and frightens contemporary Americans who call up visions of urban riots from the late 1960s and Los Angeles in the early 1990s, the story of Nat Turner, as Albert E. Stone suggests in The Return of Nat Turner: History, Literature, & Cultural Politics in Sixties America, is essential to understanding race relations in the 1830s, 1960s, and twenty-first century America. Comprehending the horrors of American slavery which drove Turner and his comrades to take up arms against their masters should shock students, just as it did even many Southerners in the 1830s, into moving beyond the mythology of benevolent masters caring for their charges within a paternalistic system. For African-American students who find the study of slavery shameful, Nat Turner provides a heroic example of grass roots activism and resistance. Just as the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s was an indigenous revolt which goaded the federal government into finally taking action, the abolition of slavery was not simply the work of Northern white abolitionists. The struggle against slavery was waged every day by African-Americans in the South, and Nat Turner's insurrection simply provided the most extreme example of this resistance. Thus, an all too often overlooked legacy of slavery is the historical roots of black agency which led to the abolition of slavery, the great migration to the North, and the civil rights movement. Those seeking to address current issues of racial inequality, de facto segregation, and economic injustice should not despair, for they are part of a long and rich struggle. 4
      Yet, many teachers will shy away from Turner's revolt and the resulting bloodshed, pointing out that Turner's men murdered school children, defenseless women, and babies. That is, indeed, part of the historical record which should not be denied, but these same teachers often have no problem with studying the bloody carnage of battles such as Gettysburg. They have no trouble discussing the defenders of slavery such as John C. Calhoun or Robert E. Lee. It should always be remembered that the institution which these men defended was established upon the legacy of the middle passage and resulted in the death of countless African-American children and the destruction of slave families. It is the despair which slavery caused which drove Turner and his followers into their desperate revolt, and the horrors of American slavery should remain foremost in our minds when examining the violence of Turner's insurrection and the brutal retaliation by many Southern whites against slaves as well as free blacks. The legacy of slavery, and Turner's revolt is a good example, has often charged American race relations with an explosive violence. But this is a history which we must confront and deal with if we are to avoid, in the words of James Baldwin, "the fire next time." This is a responsibility which we owe our students, both black and white. 5
      For students of Nat Turner's revolt an excellent primary source exists in Turner's confession dictated to attorney Thomas R. Gray shortly before the insurrectionist's hanging. The confession may be found in numerous primary source collections, such as Henry Irving Tragle, ed., The Southampton Slave Revolt of 1831: A Compilation of Source Material (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1971) and John B. Duff and Peter M. Mitchell, eds., The Nat Turner Rebellion: The Historical Event and the Modern Controversy (New York: Harper and Row, 1971). Some critics of the confession question its authenticity, arguing that attorney Gray, a slaveholder, exaggerated the religious fanaticism of Turner in order to discredit the rebellion and draw attention from the injustices of slavery which precipitated the revolt. Others, however, insist that the confession was in line with the recorded testimony of Turner before the court assembled in Southampton County. Therefore, we should probably assume that Turner was a religious zealot, but this fact should not be allowed to distract observers from the horrors of enslavement which produced the revolt. Students should certainly be encouraged to examine this primary document, but should be aware that bias may have colored Gray's transcription of Turner's words. In recommending the use of the confession, however, it must be admitted that modern students will find the nineteenth-century prose of Gray difficult reading, and the confession by itself provides little historical context for the Southampton insurrection. Students will perhaps be impressed with the non-apologetic attitude of the defiant Turner, but the sensationalism of the mutilations committed against the plantation families, and especially children, may obscure the horrors of slavery for modern readers. 6
      Students of Turner's rebellion should also be made aware of the controversy provoked during the 1960s by publication of William Styron's The Confessions of Nat Turner (New York: Random House, 1966). More advanced readers might find this novel fascinating; but teachers should point out that Styron's work and the ensuing racial discourse, exemplified in John Henrick Clarke, ed., William Styron's Nat Turner: Ten Black Writers Respond (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968), may reveal much more about race relations in the 1960s than the actual events of 1831 in Southampton County. Styron's book also raises important issues regarding sexuality and racial stereotyping, for Styron has his Nat Turner indulging in masturbation fantasies involving a white woman, Margaret Whitehead, the only victim who was actually killed by Turner's own hand. Through investigating Styron's work a mature student may even gain some understanding of the racial and gender discourse regarding the 1990s murder trial of O. J. Simpson. However, Styron's journey into sexuality tends to distract from an understanding of slavery and the resistance it provoked, and most students will find the book lengthy and lacking in historical context. 7
      A much more practical reading vehicle for introducing Nat Turner to secondary students in grades eleven and twelve is Stephen Oates biography of Turner, The Fires of Jubilee. Oates, a professional historian who aims for a popular audience, asserts in the forward to his volume that he was "determined to produce a biographical and historical narrative that would be as realistic and fair-minded as he could make it" (p. vii). Whether Oates achieves this goal is something that students might address in discussion and essays following an examination of the work. Even if one does not find Oates totally lacking in subjectivity, he does place the story of Nat Turner's revolt within the historical and cultural context of America in the 1830s. And while his prose may be a little challenging and plodding for some readers raised on MTV and video games, the book's length of approximately 175 pages of text will not be too intimidating for high school scholars. 8
      Oates divides his work into four parts, which could provide the basis for four reading assignments, although the sections are not of equal length. One suggestion would be to take approximately three to four weeks with this book while studying the antebellum period. Weekly readings from the Oates biography would allow students to keep the topic of slavery firmly within their sights while studying other aspects of the early nineteenth century such as politics, foreign policy, territorial expansion, and economic growth. Part one, entitled "This Infernal Spirit of Slavery," develops the background of Nat Turner and American slavery in the 1820s and 1830s. Part two, "Go Sound the Jubilee," chronicles the religious ideas of Turner and his call to lead a revolt. The longest section of the book is part three, entitled "Judgment Day," and provides a detailed account of Turner's bloody insurrection and the equally violent response of slave owners. The violence contained in this section will probably both attract and disgust readers, but it will keep their attention. However, teachers will need to remind students of the horrors of slavery, which may get lost as the gory details of Turner's insurrection are revealed. The actions of Turner and his comrades need to be understood within the context of this unjust and also violent institution. Also, because Oates's account of the mayhem wrought by Turner and his followers is so detailed, the proposed study guide questions which follow present a representative overview of the story, rather than attempting to chronicle every assault. The last section of the book deals with the legacy of Turner's revolt, and an epilogue by Oates describes his travels in 1970s Southampton County, Virginia. 9
      Below, you will find study guide questions for each section of the book. These questions deal with the details of Oates's narrative as well as some of the historical questions raised by the author's commentary upon Turner's actions. The suggested questions also focus upon the historical context provided by Oates. The format for use of these questions might depend upon the class size and motivation of the students. The questions could be used for a general classroom discourse, for examination by groups who would then report to the class, as take home questions to be completed individually, or as a classroom quiz to ascertain whether students had completed and understood the reading. Following the somewhat detailed study guide questions, are sample essay questions which should provide a more analytical framework for students to develop their ideas and thoughts regarding slavery, the Southampton insurrection, the legacy of slavery and race relations in America, and Oates's contribution to this discourse. A list of supplementary assignments regarding slavery and the Turner revolt are also included, as is a bibliography on Nat Turner and slave revolts in general for further background reading.

Study Guide for The Fires of Jubilee


Prologue and Part One:
"This Infernal Spirit of Slavery"

  1. Provide a brief background description of Southampton County, Virginia in 1831.
  2. Describe the religious backgrounds of Benjamin and Elizabeth Turner. What role did Methodism play in the slavery debate during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries?
  3. Describe the background of Nat's mother, Nancy.
  4. What happened to Nat's father?
  5. Why was the young Nat perceived as a special person?
  6. How did Nat become the property of Samuel Turner?
  7. How did many white Southerners try to use Christianity as a means to support the institution of slavery?
  8. Describe the slave revolt of the mid-1790s in Santo Domingo? What was the impact of this revolt upon the United States?
  9. Describe the 1800 slave revolt of Gabriel Prosser in Richmond. Why did it fail?
  10. If many Southern whites were questioning slavery in the early nineteenth century, then why did they not abolish the institution?
  11. How and why does Nat's life change at age twelve?
  12. Describe the importance of family life to the enslaved people? What did they do when they were not in the fields?
  13. Develop the role played by the slave church.
  14. What do we know about Nat's wife, Cherry?
  15. Describe Nat's effort to run away? Why does he return?

Part Two:
"Go Send the Jubilee"

  1. Who was Etheldred Brantley?
  2. What happened when Nat told Samuel Turner that the slaves ought to be free?
  3. Who was Demark Vesey and what happened to him?
  4. Who was David Walker and what was his message in the Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World?
  5. How did Southerners link the slavery and tariff issues?
  6. How was Nat initially viewed by whites in Southampton County?
  7. Who were Joseph Travis and Samuel Putnam?
  8. What signs convinced Nat that it was time for the revolt?
  9. Why did Nat enjoy relative freedom of movement?
  10. Why was it so important to blame slave rebellions upon abolitionists such as William Lloyd Garrison?

Part Three:
"Judgment Day"

  1. Develop the political ideology of Virginia Governor John Floyd.
  2. What were Nat Turner's "plans" for his revolt?
  3. Describe the assault upon the Travis farm.
  4. Who was Will Francis?
  5. Describe what happened at the Whitehead plantation? Who was Margaret Whitehead?
  6. What happened when Nat and his followers arrived at the Nathaniel Francis farm?
  7. Describe the attack upon the Levi Waller farm and the adjacent school house.
  8. How did other slaves respond to Nat's insurrection?
  9. What happened to Rebecca and Ann Elizabeth Vaughn?
  10. According to Oates, why did Nat Turner bring up the rear of his rebellious column?
  11. Why was Turner unable to march upon New Jerusalem?
  12. What roles, if any, did rape and alcohol play in the revolt?
  13. Describe the battles at the James Parker place and Blunt Plantation.
  14. Describe the military reaction of whites to the revolt.
  15. Describe and give examples of the atrocities committed by whites against slaves and free blacks in response to the Southampton insurrection.
  16. Who was Billy Artis and what happened to him?
  17. What happened to Cherry?
  18. When the smoke cleared, how many had died as a result of the insurrection? How many slaves had joined Nat in his revolt?
  19. Why was it considered important to establish a Court of Oyer and Terminer for trials of the rebels? Explain the issue of compensation involved with these trials? How would these trials fall short of contemporary standards for justice?
  20. What does Oates mean by his assertion that the revolt forced Southern whites to confront the reality of slavery?
  21. Describe the role played by rumor following the rebellion? What happened in Wilmington, North Carolina as a result of such rumors?
  22. What was the reaction of Governor Floyd to the revolt?
  23. Why do many in the South place blame for the insurrection upon ministers and evangelical Christianity?
  24. How was Nat able to elude his captors for six weeks and how was he eventually captured?
  25. How did whites in Southampton react to Nat's capture?
  26. Who was Thomas R. Gray?
  27. Does Nat Turner offer an apology for his actions?
  28. Does Oates find the confession of Nat Turner to be a reliable historical document?
  29. Describe the trial and execution of Nat Turner.
  30. Explain the significance of Oates's conclusion that Southern whites tended to focus blame for the insurrection upon religious fanaticism rather than the slave system.

Part Four:
"Legacy" and "Epilogue"

  1. What was the reaction in the North to Turner's rebellion?
  2. How and why does blame for the revolt become placed upon William Lloyd Garrison and The Liberator?
  3. Describe the debate on the abolition of slavery which occurred in Virginia following the insurrection. What was the outcome of this debate?
  4. What new legal restrictions were placed on slaves and free blacks as a result of the rebellion?
  5. Explain how Oates relates the issue of slavery and the Nullification Crisis in South Carolina.
  6. Explain what Oates means by his comment that the South was becoming a closed society in the 1830s.
  7. What point is Oates attempting to make in his epilogue by describing his modern day odyssey to Southampton County?
  8. Evaluate the sources used by Oates in the construction of his historical narrative.
  9. What is the historical context in which Fires of Jubilee was published in 1975?

Supplementary Assignments on Slavery and Rebellion

Below you will find suggestions for supplementary assignments which groups of selected students might take on and report to the entire class.

  1. Arrange a screening of Steven Spielberg's Amistad. The film presents a depiction of a successful slave revolt aboard the Spanish slave ship Amistad. The visual footage of the middle passage is powerful on the harsh reality of the slave trade. However, teachers should also encourage a critical examination of this film, for it may be interpreted as a "white liberal" film in the tradition of Mississippi Burning, denying a sense of black agency. This is the case because much of Amistad focuses upon the efforts of white abolitionists and former President John Quincy Adams to free the slaves, using the American legal system. The actual Amistad revolt is given little attention in the film, which is concerned with the aftermath of the rebellion. While the speeches of Adams (portrayed by Anthony Hopkins) focus upon the issue of natural rights, it is crucial for students to recognize that the Supreme Court case which freed the Amistad rebels was really more about the protection of property rights than freedom, for these are basically the same justices who will later write the notorious Dred Scott decision.
  2. To better understand the historical legacy of black agency during American slavery have students prepare reports on slave resistance: sabotage, running away, the underground railroad, Frederick Douglass, David Walker's Appeal, Henry Highland Garnet, and the role of African-Americans in the abolitionist movement. Also, the historical record of previous slave revolt conspiracies such as those of Denmark Vesey and Gabriel Prosser should be investigated. And students of American history should pay special attention to the successful slave revolt in Santo Domingo (Haiti) and the fears it aroused in the United States.
  3. Students should also be encouraged to examine how Nat Turner is presented in their textbooks. Is he included? If not, why not? What does this mean?
  4. Students might want to investigate how the legacy of Nat Turner has been presented to younger children. For example, in a children's book by Judith Berry Griffin, Nat Turner (New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1970), the most important factor ascribed to Nat Turner is "that he saw something he knew was wrong, and that he set out to correct it in the only way he could—by leading his desperate revolt" (p.8). How should the subject of Nat Turner be raised with younger children? How would your students teach this subject in the elementary grades or in middle school? Is it more dangerous to teach or not teach Nat Turner?
  5. Some better and more mature readers might want to tackle William Styron's Confessions of Nat Turner and explain to their peers why this novel has proven to be so controversial. The juxtaposition of sexuality and issues of race which this novel raises need to be explored by students. Myths of assaults by African-American men upon white women have perpetuated many of the nation's worse race riots, including the bloody mayhem of the 1922 Tulsa race riot in which over three hundred African-Americans were murdered. An examination of sexuality may be awkward for some teachers and school districts, but if we are going to understand issues of race in our country today (such as the racial divide over the 0. J. Simpson trial), students must consider these issues and the legacy of sexual exploitation which may be traced back to the institution of slavery. Supposedly, African-American filmmaker Spike Lee is interested in making a film of the novel. How could your students imagine making a film of this novel. Would you insist on changing parts of the novel, and could a film of this topic attract an audience? After all, films on slavery such as Amistad and Beloved in recent years have failed to attract much of an audience. Why is this the case?
  6. Some students might also want to read the Autobiography of Malcolm X and consider what Malcolm has to say about the issues of violence and self-determination. How does the legacy of Nat Turner reside in the words and ideas of Malcolm X? The key point here is that Nat Turner's revolt and American slavery must be considered within both the historical context of the 1830s and race relations in contemporary America.
  7. Students also need to be made aware of the importance of primary documents. Some students should examine the actual Confession of Nat Turner as written by Thomas Gray to ascertain whether Oates is true to this account in his historical narrative. Also students should use the internet and printed sources to gather primary sources on American slavery and slave resistance.
  8. And student creativity should also be encouraged in an effort to foster intellectual engagement with the story and legacy of Nat Turner. Students might write editorials and draw political cartoons depicting reaction to the Southampton insurrection. Also students might want to write poems and creative stories depicting the events of August 1831, in Southampton County. Individuals more skilled with computers and video equipment might want to try a Ken Burns type of documentary on Nat Turner and his legacy. Also, classes might want to simulate the 1832 debates in the Virginia legislature on whether to abolish the institution of slavery. And students might want to reenact the trial of Nat Turner. However, in conducting such a simulation there is the danger of being too ahistorical. Students should recognize that the trial of Nat Turner was not an act of contemporary justice. Nat was not tried by a jury of his peers. His defense attorney was a slave owner, and the judges who passed judgment on Turner were also slave owners.
  9. Teachers and students might also screen the 2003 PBS documentary Nat Turner: A Troublesome Property by filmmakers Charles Burnett, Frank Christopher, and Kenneth Greenberg. Responding to the question of what he hoped to accomplish with this documentary film, Burnett asserted, "Hopefully, the film will initiate a debate on race and by doing so perhaps get us to a better place in terms of black/white issues. I also think that part of society suffers from selective amnesia and they need to be awakened." Accordingly, Nat Turner A Troublesome Property could be paired with the Oates text to address the legacy of slavery for contemporary race relations.

Sample Essay Questions for The Fires of Jubilee

   Select one of the following analytical essay questions and develop your response using logical argument, specific historical examples, and supporting textual evidence from Stephen Oates's The Fires of Jubilee.

  1. In the introduction to his account of the Nat Turner rebellion, Stephen Oates asserts his goal to present an "objective" history of Turner and his insurrection, stating that he was determined to "produce a biographical and historical narrative that would be as realistic and fair-minded as I could make it." Based upon your reading of The Fires of Jubilee, do you believe that Oates achieved this goal?
  2. In The Return of Nat Turner: History. Literature. & Cultural Politics in Sixties America (1992), scholar Albert E. Stone argues that the story of Nat Turner still symbolizes for many Americans the racial divide that has persisted from the nineteenth century through the 1960s and into the present. Does Stephen Oates's account of Nat Turner perpetuate or seek to reconcile these racial divisions over Turner's legacy?
  3. In the conclusion of his work, Oates asserts that to many African-Americans, Nat Turner is a heroic figure. Speaking of African-Americans, Oates writes, "They regard Turner's rebellion as the 'First War' against slavery and the Civil War as the second. So in death Nat achieved a kind of victory denied him in life-he became a martyred soldier of slave liberation who broke his chains and murdered whites because slavery had murdered Negroes." Do you perceive that Oates supports this perspective in his account? Do you agree or disagree with the description of Turner as freedom fighter? And to have this interpretation, does one have to be African-American as Oates seems to suggest? Is Oates perpetuating a racial divide in the legacy of Nat Turner?
  4. Critics of The Fires of Jubilee contend that Oates, despite claims of objectivity, focuses upon the religious fervor of Nat Turner and thus ends up supporting the position of Governor John Floyd that the revolt was the result of religious fanaticism. Accordingly, the horrors of the slave system that brought Turner and his followers to a sense of desperation and revolt fails to merit adequate consideration. Based upon your analysis of Oates's historical narrative, do you agree with this criticism?
  5. While some uphold that Turner is a heroic figure who led a struggle against the injustice of slavery and that he was firmly within the natural rights doctrine espoused in the Declaration of Independence, others are uncomfortable with Turner's use of violence in his struggle for liberty, asserting that elevating Turner to the status of a hero only perpetuates racial divisions and glorifies violence which is already too prevalent in American society. These tend to be the polar extreme positions on Turner. Based upon your reading of The Fires of Jubilee, what do you think is Oates's position on the legacy of Turner? What is your historical interpretation of Nat Turner and his legacy for modern America?
  6. In December 1997, an issue of Newsweek focused upon the shadow cast by slavery upon American history and life. The articled stated, "Long described as America's original sin, slavery is also our shadow, dogging our steps forward, projecting in black the sunlight of our democratic ideas." How does the story of Nat Turner and his legacy fit into this quotation? What shadow is cast by Nat Turner upon the American experience?

Bibliography

 10
Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. New York: Columbia University Press, 1943.

Arthur, Charles and Michael Dash, eds. Libete: A Haiti Anthology. Princeton, N. J.: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1999.

Blassingame, John W. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972.

Clarke, John Henrick, ed. William Styron's Nat Turner: Ten Black Writers Respond. Boston: Beacon Press, 1968.

Duff, John B. and Peter M. Mitchell, eds. The Nat Turner Rebellion: The Historical Event and the Modern Controversy. New York: Harper and Row, 1971.

Egerton, Douglas R. Gabriel's Rebellion: The Virginia Slave Conspiracies of 1800 and 1802. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993.

Foner, Eric, ed. Nat Turner. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973.

Franklin, John Hope and Loren Schweninger. Runaway Slaves: Rebels on the Plantation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

French, Scot. The Rebellious Slave: Nat Turner in American Memory. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2003.

Genovese, Eugene. From Rebellion to Revolution: Afro-American Slave Revolts in the Making of the Modern World. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979.

Griffin, Judith Berry. Nat Turner. New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1970.

Gutman. Herbert G. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom. 1750-1925. New York: Pantheon Books, 1976.

Hicks, Peter P. To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren: David Walker and the Problem of Antebellum Slave Resistance. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997.

Jones, Howard. Mutiny on the Amistad: The Saga of a Slave Revolt and Its Impact on American Abolition, Law, and Diplomacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.

Levine, Lawrence W. Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.

Lofton, John. Denmark Vesey's Revolt: The Slave Plot that Lit a Fuse to Fort Sumter. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1983.

Ott, Thomas O. The Haitian Revolution. 1789–1804. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1973.

Robertson, David. Denmark Vesey: The Buried History of America's Largest Slave Rebellion and the Man Who Led It. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999.

Stone, Albert E. The Return of Nat Turner: History, Literature, & Cultural Politics in Sixties America. Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press, 1992.

Styron, William. The Confessions of Nat Turner. New York: Random House, 1966.

Tragle, Henry Irving. The Southampton Slave Revolt of 1831: A Compilation of Source Material. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1971.

Tyson, George F., Jr., ed. Touissaint L'Ouverture. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973.

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