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The Great Communicator: How FDR's Radio Speeches Shaped American History
Lumeng (Jenny) Yu
West Windsor-Plainsboro High School South, Plainsboro, New JerseyJunior Division Historical Paper, National History Day 2005 Competition
| AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 1930s, radio was still in its earliest stages. The country had sunk into the Great Depression and only about half of the population could enjoy this new form of mass media in their living rooms. At the same time, a bright man from New York, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, was running for President of the United States. Though he was crippled by polio, few knew that his imposing 6'1" frame was relegated to a wheelchair. People recognized him as a man with great charisma and determination. In pictures or at conventions for the presidential campaign, FDR always looked strong and healthy, either sitting or standing with the help of hidden heavy metal braces and the subtle supporting arm of his son or aide. Even some of those who saw FDR regularly did not realize the extent of his disability.1 The simultaneous rise in popularity of radio and FDR's political fortune is an interesting historical twist of fate. Radio brought news alive, but left people free to create images in their imaginations. FDR's distinctive voice and jollity flowed into people's homes. His disability was invisible. Radio helped make this possible. Through this means of mass communication, FDR could convey his ideas effectively, sitting in his estate in Hyde Park, New York or in the White House. He immediately realized the importance of this form of mass media and its power to promote his image.2 Also, as the first president to use it almost on a daily basis, he made Americans realize the benefits of radio: getting fast and viable news, and having a personal connection with their president. In this sense, he helped radio to become more popular.3 Because FDR was such a masterful communicator, he was able to use his speeches, broadcast on radio, to shape American history. |
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Evidence of FDR's successful use of radio is widespread. The power of his "Day of Infamy" speech led the nation to unite behind the President's call to war, and his fireside chats gained him support from the people for innovative and controversial social programs. These addresses were directed at the people. It was the first time that citizens felt as if they knew their president as a friend.4 For FDR, it was quality time to clear up rumors spreading across the nation, and squelch his critics as he gave people the "real news," on Roosevelt's terms, unfiltered by the press.5 Indisputably, one of FDR's most important qualities was that he had a firm control over the media, and he got what he wanted.6 FDR not only acted as a guiding beacon for the press, he also set rules as to what they could print, and what they could not.7 This relationship was mutually beneficial. The press had extensive access to the president, and FDR had a forum to convey his vision for America.8 Later, with the advent of war, the press was even more deferential; support of the war effort meant not second-guessing the president. His relationship with the press was one source of FDR's strength as a communicator. |
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The other was his relationship with the public. As with any successful politician, FDR's power came from the people. Radio provided him with a direct link to his voting public and the next generation of voters. Schoolchildren were influenced greatly as they came to know the President, developing a deep sense of respect and even worship for FDR.9 His use of radio helped him win people's hearts. They would gather on a night in front of the radio in the living room, and listen to the comforting words of their president, encouraging them, and telling them that he knew how they felt because he was one of them. Even those who did not support his programs and presidency found it difficult to counteract the impact of the intimacy of his radio addresses. |
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FDR's secretary of labor Frances Perkins once mentioned that when FDR gave a fireside chat, he was very relaxed; he looked almost like he was telling the nation a story by the fire. He was masterful in what he said and how he spoke it, always keeping in mind his audience and purpose. Roosevelt, the talented orator, used radio to his advantage. Throughout his twelve years of presidency, the longest term in U.S. history, he gave roughly thirty fireside chats and a number of other significant speeches on radio. Through major crises and simple chats, he connected with the people, who were comforted by hearing the president's voice in their own living rooms. "I never saw him—but I knew him. Can you have forgotten how, with his voice, he came into our house, the President of these United States, calling us friends...?"10 Such an important man as the President called "us friends." It was Roosevelt's style to lead affably, winning hearts and minds to the causes he favored. Not only did he call his people friends, FDR also used the word "we" repeatedly, making sure the people knew they were not doomed to solve their problems alone. Consequently, Americans welcomed this new sense of camaraderie with their president. Since he was speaking to the whole nation, and radio transmissions were not as clear at that time, Roosevelt's general speech-making style was slow, but his mood was always upbeat. FDR led the nation in a troubled time. He began his first term in the midst of the Depression and saw it to the end, in part due to his social reforms and the outbreak of World War II. The nation was like a new colt after the Depression, wobbly and vacillating, unsure of how to progress after such a plunge in the economy. FDR made sure to boost Americans' energy at the end of every fireside chat, each full of confidence and strength, his voice filled with the sagacity of a father. And like a father, it was difficult to escape FDR's presence. Supporters and critics alike reacted to the speeches, spurring a national dialogue over his agenda.11 |
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The "Day of Infamy" speech offers dramatic evidence of Roosevelt's speechmaking skills—requesting the declaration of war on Japan was probably the most important address FDR delivered. Chaos broke the morning quiet that first Sunday in December of 1941. Just before 8 A.M., Japanese planes descended on the Pearl Harbor naval base. The explosions from their bombs reverberated around the world. In Washington D.C. it was early afternoon when a call came in to the President from Secretary of War Henry Stimson saying that Pearl Harbor had been bombed.12 Roosevelt was working on his stamp collection, with Harry Hopkins, an aide, looking on. Hopkins took the information incredulously, but FDR believed it, and took it with extreme calmness.13 Realizing that the war against Japan was inevitable, he immediately began drafting a proposal for the declaration of war.14 Sam Rosenman mentioned later that normally a speech would take about three to ten days to prepare, which was far longer than the events of December 7th allowed. |
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Despite the fact that a large number of people in the nation were against going to war with the Axis powers, FDR knew that America was going to go to war, sooner or later.15 Because FDR knew he had to persuade his people that going to war would be for a greater good, he devoted his full energy to revising the draft of this "declaration of war." Theoretically, the "Day of Infamy" speech did not declare war against Japan. It was a request to Congress to declare war. However, because of FDR's awareness of audience, the speech was an effective declaration of purpose, a speech that would rouse Americans to support their country in the war effort. |
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It is important to note that FDR had rejected a longer version of the draft that Undersecretary of State Sumner Welles proposed.16 That draft contained an explanation of the events leading up to Pearl Harbor, details that were appropriate for a president to specify to Congress as justification for the need to go to war. Although this address was made to the Congress, FDR knew that this speech would have a larger, more significant audience: the people of the United States via radio. His goal was to persuade the people, as well as Congress, to support his call to war. He did not want Americans to be confused at such a critical time. Also, Roosevelt kept in mind that the public was not supportive of a war. He needed to make events sound less intimidating than they actually were, in order to instill the belief in Americans that such horrors like the attack on Pearl Harbor were surmountable. Therefore, in the final speech before Congress, there was no mention of Germany, which FDR knew to be another threat, or the number of casualties.17 |
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This speech offers great examples of FDR's "precision of language" that could shape perceptions of the truth. He deliberately changed the word "attacks" to "attack," knowing that by making it sound like only one attack, Americans would not be as overwhelmed.18 He also did not mention the attack on Manila during his speech, though it appeared in earlier drafts, for fear that it would confuse the people, and lead them to think that the war was too big to handle. Roosevelt also revised the ending to make it more powerful—typical of his style—as he made the argument that the great country of America could accomplish anything it put its mind to do. Hopkins came into the room at the end of the dictation of the first draft and added the line that eventually became, "With confidence in our armed forces—with the unbounding determination of our people—we will gain the inevitable triumph—so help us God." FDR added his own closing line, "No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people in their righteous might will win through to absolute victory." |
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Reviewing both the original transcripts and the audio recording of the "Day of Infamy" speech is important to studying not only what FDR said to the nation, but how he said it. Listening to the recording, and hearing the inflection and delivery is as important as reading the content. The strategically placed pauses, and the amount of emotion put into the speech greatly helped him to convey his message to the people. For example, the repetitious lines containing "last night Japanese forces attacked ..." are said bitterly, almost monotonously, as if FDR is in shock by the places Japan has dared to attack, yet the lines are there to make sure that all of America knows that they will not be fighting the enemy alone. This line implies that no doubt these other countries will also be at war against Japan. Hopkins's added line is delivered proudly and confidently to let people know that the president will always guide them, and that the will of God is with them. Certain words, such as "peace" and "deliberately" are stressed.19 Roosevelt also seems to show derision in several places during the speech, including when he talks about how Japan was still involved in peace talks with the U.S., and that the distance from Japan to Hawaii proves that the attack was "deliberately planned." Congress interrupts FDR four times during the speech, and again at the end, with supportive applause. Like Congress, the people listening by their radios at home now supported a war.20 |
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FDR continued his communication strategy of simplification and sugarcoating in his fireside chats following the Day of Infamy speech. In the February 23, 1942 "chat" (his second after the attack), FDR claimed that, " ... the number of our officers and men killed in the attack on Pearl Harbor on December seventh was 2,340, and the number wounded was 940. Of all of the combatant ships based on Pearl Harbor—battleships, heavy cruisers, light cruisers, aircraft carriers, destroyers and submarines—only three (were) are permanently put out of commission." Some historians argue that these numbers are too low, but as with other wartime presidents, Roosevelt knew it was important to keep up America's morale.21 He needed the country's support to gain victory against the Axis forces. Roosevelt also clearly stated that he believed the rumors about the number of American losses at Pearl Harbor were exaggerated, and such talk was unacceptable to the people of the United States. Though FDR did not mention the number of aircraft destroyed, minimized the sunken ships and the number of wounded and missing, he meant the numbers he told over the radio to quiet rumors and strengthen morale.22 |
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Analysis of FDR's style indicates that he knew exactly what he was doing by minimizing the losses in his radio addresses. Americans were uneasy. Roosevelt's objective was to build confidence. The country would be no better off thinking that the Axis powers dominated the world scene. FDR needed Americans to be determined and confident. In what he said and how he said it directly to the people via radio communicated a message of confidence. 23 |
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Because FDR was such a masterful communicator, he could use mass communication through radio effectively, and thus he shaped American history. In the 1930s, his fireside chats bolstered sagging spirits as he sold the vision of a "New Deal." He used simple analogies to help millions of listening Americans understand shifting economic concepts and social philosophies. However, nothing was harder to "sell" than the importance of going to war—not just with the Japanese after Pearl Harbor—but against a second foe in an entirely different theater of war.24 By December 8, 1941, the Great Communicator and radio were positioned to reach not only Americans, but also listeners worldwide. |
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FDR's vision indeed shaped America. His "New Deal" that merged economic and social policy is entrenched now in Americans' expectations of government responsibilities. His vision to fight in more than one theater of war against aggressive enemies ultimately propelled America to world power status. However, this great communicator left another enduring legacy. The FDR era shifted the center of power from Congress to the White House.25 All presidents thereafter have followed FDR's lead in intensely managing their media image. President Reagan, the "Teflon President," comes closest to FDR in his ability to rise above media criticism and retain favorable ratings with the public.26 However, Reagan ruled in a very different media climate: post Vietnam and Watergate. Unlike FDR's cadre of reporters working with him in support of the war, the press today takes the role of aggressive watchdog. FDR's press shielded his disability and affairs from public view. Today it seems that nothing—upstairs or downstairs at the White House—is "off the record." |
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Historians have yet to find FDR's true significance in history — saint or manipulator, or somewhere in between. However, in the context of his own time, Franklin Roosevelt indeed used radio as his tool to shape the America we know today. |
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Notes
* I would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr. Ruddiman for all her help and support. Your passion for learning and readiness to accept challenges truly inspires your students. Thank you!
1. One of the reporters who covered FDR for eight years did not know he was unable to walk. Joan Ruddiman. Notes on Donald Ritchie's lecture to NHD Summer Institute participants, July 22, 2004.
2. FDR's first fireside chat on the banking crisis was staged on March 12, 1933, eight days after he was sworn into office. Lawrence W. and Cornelia R. Levine. The People and the President: America's Conversation with FDR. (Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press, 2002), introduction. <http://www.wnyc.org>
3. At the beginning of Roosevelt's presidency, about 62% of the population owned radios; at the time of his death, about 90% had radios. Ibid., preface.
4. Over fifteen million letters arrived in the White House addressed to the president regarding his radio speeches, in particular, the fireside chats. Levine, The People and the President: America's Conversation with FDR, preface.
5. Even a popular president had to be vigilant against political attacks. For example, Father Coughlin, who used radio as effectively as FDR, initially was supportive of the President's policies. However, due to the slow progression of action with the New Deal, Coughlin turned against him. - -. "Between the Wars: The Radio Priest." <http://chnm.gmu.edu>
6. Besides speechwriters, FDR also had a host of press agents. His relationship with his press agents was similar to his relationship with his writers. They worked for him, and rather than the writers or agents creating the image, FDR had the image. The writers and agents conveyed it effectively for him. Joan Ruddiman. Notes on Donald Ritchie's lecture to NHD Summer Institute participants, July 22, 2004.
7. FDR "ruled" the press. During his first meeting with them, he set up a series of guidelines for them to follow, including no direct quotations unless they are given out in writing, no "off the record" information in a story, and no printing of information told in a press conference without physically being there. - -. "Press Conference #1." March 8, 1933. <http://arcweb.archives.gov>
8. FDR had a total of about 1020 press conferences during his presidency. This was the greatest number of press conferences in all of U.S. history. This number excluded the numerous informal photo opportunities given to the press (in the Rose Garden). John P. Riley, "The Press Conference: A Key to Understanding the President." Communication in History: the Key to Understanding. National History Day Curriculum Book. (Maryland: National History Day, 2005), 48–51.
9. A survey of schoolchildren (in FDR's time), run by a congressman in New York, shows that in a competition between FDR and God, FDR actually won! Kevin Baker. "Why America Loved Roosevelt Fifty Years After His Death, Recalling the Power of His Principled Pragmatism." The Washington Post Company. <http://www.kevinbaker.info>
10. Quote by Carl Carmer, April 14, 1945, two days after FDR's death. Diana Mankowski and Raissa Jose. "Flashback: 70th Anniversary of FDR's Fireside Chats." The Museum of Broadcast Communications. <http://www.museum.tv>
11. Public debate and mixed opinions of FDR can be seen from newspaper articles about FDR in his time period. For example, an author of the Washington Post was not initially supportive of the New Deal, but realized, after the events of Pearl Harbor, FDR's strengths. Westbrook Pegler. "Fair Enough." The Washington Post. Dec. 10, 1941: 17. Also, a Wall Street Journal article from the time points out the statutory powers held by FDR during the war, including the ability to close all radio stations or take possession of them for the government. This must have sparked public debate because the Nazis had been doing this in the war. However, because of the balance of power in our country between the legislative and executive branches, FDR could not have done this without causing a major riot in Congress. These articles indicate that the public was never unanimous in their support of the president. - -. "Roosevelt Give Greatest Statutory Powers Ever Held by U.S. President." The Wall Street Journal. Dec. 9, 1941: 2.
12. Elsie Freeman, Wynell Burroughs Schamel, and Jean West. "'A Date Which Will Live in Infamy'": The First Typed Draft of Franklin D. Roosevelt's War Address." Social Education 55, 7 (November/December 1991): 467–470. National Archives. <http://www.archives.gov>
13. Nathan Miller. FDR: An Intimate History (New York: Doubleday, 1983), 477.
14. Although he had many speechwriters, FDR dictated most of his speeches to his speechwriters who edited them. The ideas were his own. Samuel Rosenman, FDR's main speechwriter and special aide, once mentioned that by the time a speech was delivered, Roosevelt would have gone over it so many times that he knew it by heart. Samuel I. Rosenman. Working With Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Bros., 1952), 11. Because two of FDR's speechwriters, Sam Rosenman and Robert Sherwood were away in New York, this speech was written by FDR as dictated to Grace Tully, with certain additions and revisions. Jon Meacham. Franklin and Winston: An Intimate Portrait of an Epic Friendship (New York: Random House, 2003), 131–133
15. In a bedside memo at the beginning of the European war, FDR notes the moves Germany makes. Also, before Pearl Harbor was bombed, Roosevelt made sure to help the Allies as much as he could in the background by sending supplies to England. Franklin D. Roosevelt. September 1, 1939. <http://arcweb.archives.gov>
16. Grace Tully. FDR, My Boss (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1949.), 256.
17. The closest he came to this was, "I regret to tell you that very many American lives have been lost." Franklin D. Roosevelt. "Declaration of War with Japan Address to Congress." December 8, 1941. <http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu>
18. This was obtained through an analysis of the first draft compared to the reading draft of this speech. Franklin D. Roosevelt. "Declaration of War with Japan Address to Congress." Also, it is interesting to note that on the first draft, the now-famous line often quoted "a date which will live in infamy" was originally "a date which will live in world history."(draft 1) <http://www.archives.gov>. Franklin D. Roosevelt. "Declaration of War with Japan Address to Congress." <http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu>
19. "Deliberately" seems to be a word FDR uses very often. It can be seen three times on the first page of "Day of Infamy," and also twice on the first page of his September 11, 1941 fireside chat. Ibid. Franklin D. Roosevelt. "On Maintaining Freedom of the Seas." September 11, 1941. <http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu>
20. Before Pearl Harbor and the "Day of Infamy" speech approximately 74% of Americans opposed the war. Thomas Fleming. The New Dealer's War, (New York: Basic Books, 2001), caption of second picture between p. 84 and 85. However, in January of 1942, FDR's popularity had risen to its peak, showing the success of his leadership in the war, and his fine communication skills. Dr. George Gallup, "Gallup Poll." The Washington Post (Jan. 28, 1942): 13.
21. Historian Thomas Fleming questions FDR's numbers, saying that these data are inaccurate American losses at Pearl Harbor. He says that there were six sunk and two damaged battleships, three cruisers, two destroyers, 180 planes destroyed, and 128 other planes damaged. Thomas Fleming. The New Dealer's War, 129. The actual total American losses were approximately 2,400 dead, 1,300 wounded, 1,000 missing; 17 aircraft destroyed, 120 damaged, and 18 vessels hit or seriously damaged. Anthony Bruce and William Cogar. "Pearl Harbor." An Encyclopedia of Naval History. (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1998.); Clayton D. Laurie, "Pearl Harbor." In John W.Jeffries, Katherine Liapis Segrue, and Gary B. Nash, eds. Encyclopedia of American History: The Great Depression and World War II, 1929 to 1945, Volume 8. (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2003.); Priscilla Roberts, "Pearl Harbor." In Spencer C. Tucker, gen. ed. Encyclopedia of American Military History, vol. 3. (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2003.) <www.factsonfile.com>
22. Although FDR tried to gain public support for his actions in the war, the public did not approve all of his plans. In January 1942, about ten percent of the population did not support FDR due to his spending excess money on non-defense items, poorly organized war efforts, and his not delegating enough authority. Dr. George Gallup. "Gallup Poll." The Washington Post (Jan. 28, 1942): 13.
23. White House publications cite FDR as building confidence in Americans via his use of the radio. - -, "Presidents Make History in the White House." (White House Historical Association, 2004)
24. Germany declared war on the U.S. three days after Pearl Harbor. In the December 9, 1941 fireside chat, FDR had stated that Germany and Italy were already at war with the U.S. without even having formally declared it. He was trying to get Americans ready for another enemy in the war. Franklin D. Roosevelt. "On the Declaration of War with Japan" December 9, 1941. <http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu>
25. In 1932, the White House became the center of media attention. Since then, the beginning of Roosevelt's presidency, the President became more significant to the press than the Congress and Senate. Donald Ritchie, Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents (Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: First Harvard University Press, 1992), 218–219.
26. Reagan, another Great Communicator, was dubbed the "Teflon President" because, like Roosevelt, he was able to undergo political attacks from the media, and prevail with favorable public appreciation. Despite the Iran-Contra affair and his controversial domestic policy, Reagan ended his presidency with a 63% approval rating. Jon Meacham. "Portrait of a President: American Dreamer." Newsweek. Vol. CXLIII (2004): 29.
Annotated Bibliography
Primary Sources
Audio Clips
- -. "Declaration of War with Japan Address to Congress." Rec. 8 Dec. 1941. Day of Infamy Speech-Franklin Roosevelt. Voices of World War II: Experiences from the Front and at Home. 14 June 2004. Department of Special Collections, Miller Nichols Library in Partnership with the Truman Presidential Museum and Library. 28 Feb. 2005 <http://www.umkc.edu/lib/spec-col/ww2/PearlHarbor/fdr-speech.htm#doi>
This web page provided an audio recording of FDR making his "Day of Infamy" Speech. This source made it possible for me to analyze FDR's verbal style, which proved to be significant in how he conveyed his ideas effectively.
- -.7 Dec. 1941. Voices of World War II: Experiences from the Front and at Home. Department of Special Collections, Miller Nichols Library in Partnership with the Truman Presidential Museum and Library. 14 June 2004. 28 Feb. 2005 <http://www.umkc.edu/lib/spec-col/ww2/PearlHarbor/radio.htm#news>
This site provided me with twelve audio recordings of radio broadcasts on December 7, 1941, reporting on the attacks on Pearl Harbor. These short broadcasts cut into the normally scheduled programs, and the people at that time must have panicked because the reports came so suddenly. One of the recordings has background noises of the planes in Honolulu, where the reporter was stationed. This site was also very important to my research because it indicated the short amount of time FDR had to prepare his declaration of war before presenting the proposal to the whole, panicked nation at the same time.
Cartoons
- -. "FDR Cartoons." FDR Cartoon Archive. 5 Oct. 1998. Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum. 1 Dec. 2004. <http://www.nisk.k12.ny.us/fdr/FDRcartoons.html>
This is a complete collection of political cartoons from FDR's presidency. It shows the way people of that time period thought about his actions and how they reacted to them. They are mostly positive, with some negative. Those that are negative are mainly critical of FDR's slow and steady style.
Film Recording
Daughty, C. "Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor." Johnson Presidential Library. Voices of World War II: Experiences from the Front and at Home. 3 Dec. 2004 <http://www.umkc.edu/lib/spec-col/ww2/PearlHarbor/attack-video.htm#video>
This video clip of the attack on Pearl Harbor made it easier to relate to what was happening at the time. This made it easier to see what FDR is talking about when he said "dastardly attacks."
Letters
Castro, Fidel. Letter to Franklin Delano Roosevelt. 6 Nov. 1940. National Archives Civilian Records LICON, Textual Archives Services Division (NWCTC). 28 Nov. 2004. <http://arcweb.archives.gov/arc/digital_detail.jsp?&pg=1&rn=26&tn=302026&st=b&rp=details&nh=121&si=0>.
This is a letter to the president (FDR) from twelve year old Castro, who wrote asking for a ten dollar, green, American bill. He writes in a very childish manner with not very good English, but it showed me how much the world paid attention to politics at that time even school age boys in Cuba.
Weil, L. J. Letter to Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Nov. 1943. National Archives. Modern Military Records LICON, Textual Archives Services Division (NWCTM). 28 Nov. 2004 <http://arcweb.archives.gov/arc/servlet/arc.ControllerServlet?&pg=n&rn=90&nw=n&nh=121&st=b&rp=details&si=0>.
This is a letter from a schoolboy asking to be a mascot for the Marines. Although this has little to do with FDR's speechmaking, it shows the range of public approval for FDR.
Memo
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano. Memo to self. 1 Sept. 1939. National Archives. Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, New York. 28 Nov. 2004 <http://arcweb.archives.gov/arc/digital_detail.jsp?&pg=42&rn=42&tn=198113&st=b&rp=details&nh=121>.
This is a bedside memo of FDR about the German invasion of Poland that started the Second World War. It shows that he was following international news and how he probably had some idea that the U.S. was going to get involved sooner or later because he ordered that all navy ships and army commands be notified of the invasion by radio the next day.
Memoirs
Rosenman, Samuel I. Working With Roosevelt. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952.
Rosenman, being a speechwriter and special aide of Roosevelt, was extremely helpful in revealing inside information that I would not have been able to glean from another source. This book provided details that were used within my paper and footnotes, including how long a speech normally took to formulate, and how FDR would know a speech by heart at the time of delivery.
Tully, Grace. FDR, My Boss. New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1949.
This memoir provided me with small details about the "Day of Infamy" speech. For example, a detail I used in my paper was that FDR rejected a longer version of the speech written by Undersecretary of State Sumner Welles.
Online Newspapers (of Roosevelt's time)
Drummond, Ruscoe. "U.S.-Japan at War, Sea Battle Rages; Hawaii, Guam, Philippines Attacked." The Christian Science Monitor 8 Dec. 1941: C1. . ProQuest Historical New York Times. 31 Jan. 2005 <http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/document?set=topic&subtopicid=87145&rendition=x-articleimage&start=1&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B265850922&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-citation%3B265850922>.
Reports came out the next day of the casualties and the one in this article obviously isn't accurate. However, it is important to note that the press praises Roosevelt, leading to a sense of unity.
Gallup, George, Dr. "Gallup Poll." The Washington Post 28 Jan. 1942: 13. ProQuest Historical New York Times. 24 Jan. 2005 <http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/document?set=topic&subtopicid=87132&rendition=x-article-image&start=26&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B217011572&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-citation%3B217011572>.
This site gives solid statistics on FDR's popularity before and after Pearl Harbor. This survey was conducted monthly around the nation with a total of fifty million people being surveyed each time, and it states that at the time of FDR's sixtieth birthday, he had the most public approval since he had been sworn into office for the first time. The main grievances of the ten percent of the population who don't support Roosevelt are as follows: spending excess money on non-defense items, poorly organized war efforts, and trying to do too much himself/not delegating enough authority.
Gallup, George, Dr. "Gallup Poll." The Washington Post 2 Sept. 1942: 9. ProQuest Historical New York Times. 24 Jan. 2005 <http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/document?set=topic&subtopicid=87132&rendition=x-article-image&start=26&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B217525702?&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BP>.
This article describes a decline in FDR's popularity. FDR and Churchill approval seem to be linked. Also, the article interestingly mentions that mostly the disapproval for FDR seems to be because they think that the war effort is not drastic enough at home and not aggressive enough abroad. This is surprising as a large part of the population was adamantly opposed to war only the year before. A line in the article states that Roosevelt may be able to halt this decline in popularity with his upcoming fireside chats, another example of how influential his radio speeches were on the public.
Pegler, Westbrook. "Fair Enough." The Washington Post 10 Dec. 1941: 17. ProQuest Historical New York Times. 24 Jan. 2005 <http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/document?set=topic&subtopicid=87132&rendition=x-article-image&start=26&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B317334552&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-citation%3B317334552>.
This author was primary opposed to Roosevelt's decisions with the New Deal, but in this article, he praises the President for realizing that the U.S. was going to get involved with the war in Europe and the Pacific. He points out the fact that FDR was trying to get Americans ready for war psychologically with his speeches, but also, he readied the military in case of an attack, like the one on December 7.
Pope, Pius PP. XII. "Pope's Letter to President." New York Times 21 Jan. 1940: 24. ProQuest Historical New York Times. 23 Jan. 2005 <http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/document?set=search&start=1&rendition=x-articleimage&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B94778184&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-citation% 3B94778184>.
This is the Pope's letter to FDR in response to a message FDR had sent earlier. He says that there are many things standing in the way of FDR's attempt to gain peace, but what he is doing is right. The Pope supports Roosevelt.
Reston, James B. "History is Heard: Studies Here as the President Asked for Declaration of War." New York Times 9 Dec. 1941: 5. ProQuest Historical New York Times. 24 Jan. 2005. <http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/document?set=topic&subtopicid=87132&rendition=x-article-image&start=1&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B105168449&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-citation%3B105168449>.
This article emphasized the unity of the nation in the beginning of the war and described the setting when FDR delivered the Day of Infamy speech. It interestingly states how FDR walked down the steps of the White House "on the arm of his son, Captain James Roosevelt ..." The setting of this speechmaking was important to my research because it supports the fact that FDR did have a firm control over the media. By appearing to walk freely down the steps of the White House, FDR created a great photo opportunity, and it encouraged the nation to stand tall and proud, as he was.
- -. "Roosevelt Given Greatest Statutory Powers Ever Held by U.S. President." The Wall Street Journal 9 Dec. 1941: 2. ProQuest Historical New York Times. 24 Jan. 2005 <http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/document?set=topic&start=1&rendition=x-abstract&inmylist=false&subtopicid=87132&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-abstract%3B79519101&mylisturn=urn:proquest:US;PQDOC;HNP;PQD;HNP;PROD;x-article-image;79519101&returnpage=>.
Instead of supporting the president's decision, this newspaper article criticizes the additional powers attained by FDR two days after the "sudden and deliberate" attack on Pearl Harbor. I gained an interesting piece of information about FDR power that supports my point that he had a firm control over the media: he could close radio stations or take possession of them for the government. Although this critic states this fact, it should be noted that FDR could never do this, something the Nazis have been doing in the war. Roosevelt did not abuse his power over the media. The balance of power between the executive and legislative branches also shows that FDR could not have done this because there would have disputes within the government over the execution of this power. However, this article raises a potential controversy, as FDR already had control of the media even though he wasn't exercising outright censorship or shutting down radio stations or newspapers.
- -. "Letting Mr. Roosevelt Do It." Editorial. The Los Angeles Times 30 Jan. 1942: A4. ProQuestHistorical New York Times. 24 Jan. 2005 <http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/document?set=topic&subtopicid=87132&rendition=x-article-image&start=26&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B414364331&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-citation%3B414364331>.
This editorial describes FDR's leadership and praises him. It states that although the public was afraid that he would lead the nation into an unnecessary war, FDR proves his caution and preparedness relevant with the attack on Pearl Harbor. After that, he is supported as never before for both what he is, and what his role as President of the United States symbolizes for the world. This support may have come from his masterful speechmaking, both on the "Day of Infamy" and after.
- -. "Public Believed First War Reports Only Gag." The Los Angeles Times 8 Dec. 1941: 2. ProQuestHistorical New York Times. 31 Jan. 2005 <http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/document?set=topic&subtopicid=87145&rendition=x-article-image&start=1&inmylist=false&urn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-article-image%3B414187781&mylisturn=urn%3Aproquest%3AUS%3BPQDOC%3BHNP%3BPQD%3BHNP%3BPROD%3Bx-citation%3B414187781>.
It's ironic reading the public's first response to the war. It gets into the context of the time. There was a reporter at a restaurant in California and when he announced the news of the Pearl Harbor attacks, the first reaction was "really?" Other people at the counter pretend not to hear, clearly believing there is a catch to the joke, while a drunk laughs at the reporter. It is amazing how the public wasn't braced for this sort of event, even when FDR went through such pains to prepare them for it.
Oral History
- -. "Oral History Interview with Judge Samuel I. Rosenman." Truman Presidential Museum and Library. National Archives and Records Administration. 2 Dec. 2004 <http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/rosenmn.htm#oh1>.
This is an interview with one of FDR's speechwriters. It shows the way the style in which his speeches were written, and it contains a comparison, in Rosenman's point of view, of FDR and Truman, since he acted as speechwriter and special aide to both presidents.
Poster Art
- -. "Four Freedoms." Powers of Persuasion: Poster Art from World War II. National Archives and Records Administration. 30 Nov. 2004 <http://www.archives.gov/exhibit_hall/powers_of_persuasion/four_freedoms/four_freedoms.html>.
The art of the time shows how influential FDR's speeches were during that time period. This site shows the posters that were derived from FDR's Four Freedoms speech. Also, FDR's communication effectiveness may have been improved with the help of visual art such as the ones on this site.
Telegram
Manual, J. B. Telegram to president (FDR), ts. National Archives. 23 Feb. 1942. 28 Nov. 2004. <http://arcweb.archives.gov/arc/digital_detail.jsp?&pg=18&rn=18&tn=594987&st=b&rp=details&nh=121>.
This is a telegram from Manual to FDR telling him how a fireside chat cheered him after hearing news of his son's death in the Pearl Harbor attack. It provided me with a positive perspective on how the fireside chats helped people during the Depression/WWII.
Transcripts
Franklin D. Roosevelt. "Declaration of War with Japan." (draft 1) National Archives. Mar. 16, 2005. <http://www.archives.gov/digital_classroom/lessons/day_of_infamy/day_of_infamy.html>. This source provided me with viable information on the "day of infamy." It also included a viewable version of the first draft of the speech, so I could use the draft to figure out how FDR processed and delivered the information to the people.
- -. "Fireside Chats." Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum. Nov. 13, 2004. <http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/firesi90.html>
This page of the online library contains complete transcripts of the fireside chats, [and specified where they were delivered (White House or Hyde Park)] so I was able to analyze the rest of FDR's addresses in comparison to "Day of Infamy." The transcript of the February 23, 1942 fireside chat also allowed me to use FDR's exact words, to compare to that of other sources including Thomas Fleming's criticism on the losses at Pearl Harbor FDR publicized. The main site also contains transcripts of a number of FDR's major speeches including the final draft of the "Day of Infamy" speech.
- -. "Press Conference #1." Franklin D. Roosevelt Library. Hyde Park, New York: March 8, 1933. Mar. 15, 2005. <http://arcweb.archives.gov/arc/digital_detail_summary.jsp?&tn=198085&nw=y&rn=1&nh=21&ni=0&st=b&rp=details&si=0>
This transcript of FDR's first press conference further helped me to prove my point that FDR was indeed a masterful communicator, and ruled the press. In this first meeting with reporters, FDR set down a list of guidelines for the media to follow. The rules were meant to promote FDR's own image, as well as keep news viable, and the nation well informed on what Roosevelt wanted them to know.
Secondary Sources
Books
Bishop, Jim. FDR's Last Year. New York: W. Morrow, 1974.
This book that I read early in my research, detailed the events of FDR's last year. The particular part that was interesting and of use to me concerned his close relationship with Samuel Rosenman, his speechwriter and special aide, which led me to seek Rosenman primary sources. A section in the book described FDR calling Rosenman to his bedroom while he was learning to walk again with the help of a general. The interesting part was that FDR was in his underwear at the time, but he sent for Rosenman nonetheless. This detail led me to think that Rosenman may have influenced FDR's thoughts and speechmaking style (as in the words he used) because of his intimate relationship with FDR. Also, I know from other sources that the fireside chats were prepared by speechwriters such as Rosenman, and some of the same words that had shown up often in the chats were also present in the "Day of Infamy" speech.
Finkelstein, Norman H. Sounds in the Air: The Golden Age of Radio. New York: Charles Scribner's; Toronto: Maxwell Macmillan, Canada; New York: Maxwell Macmillan International, 1993.
This provided me with basic information on the beginning of radio. It also talked briefly about fireside chats. This source, read early on in my research of the significance of radio to the theme of communication, spurred my initial thoughts on how FDR was the first president to use radio effectively.
Fleming, Thomas. The New Dealer's War. New York: Basic Books, 2001.
Fleming is a historian and author of over forty fiction and non-fiction books. The New Dealer's War contains criticism of FDR and points out many of his weaknesses. Fleming is critical of FDR, and this book was most useful in the sense that it provided criticism on what Roosevelt did not say in his speeches regarding Pearl Harbor. From this source, I was able to do a full analysis of what FDR said in his "Day of Infamy" speech, and the fireside chats immediately before and after the attacks, to figure out what FDR's intentions were, as in "was he hiding the truth for a reason?"
Larsen, Rebecca. Franklin D. Roosevelt: Man of Destiny. New York/ London /Toronto/ Sydney: Franklin Watts. 1991.
This is a biography of FDR and outlined his political career. Although it did not go into detail about his speeches, this book helped me to better understand FDR's personality and how the people around him affected his thoughts and actions. Also, this source provided me with descriptions of FDR (ex. - his height and his use of leg braces) so I could better visualize him.
Meacham, Jon. Franklin and Winston: An Intimate Portrait of an Epic Friendship. New York: Random House, 2003. pp. 131–133.
These pages contained little details about the Day of Infamy speech, especially the drafting of the speech. It included quotes by Grace Tully and Harry Hopkins that I found helpful in relating to the context of the time, and which led me to search for more by these sources. This book also gave me a general idea of his style of dictating.
Miller, Nathan. FDR: An Intimate History. New York: Doubleday, 1983.
This book outlines FDR's political career, but the part that was most important for my research was about how FDR took the events of December 7, 1941 so calmly. He commented on how the attack on Pearl Harbor was just the thing Japan would do, despite continuous diplomatic negotiations with the United States.
Riley, John P. "The Press Conference: A Key to Understanding the President." Communication in History: the Key to Understanding. College Park, Maryland: National History Day, 2005, p. 48–51.
This is the National History Day Curriculum Book on the 2004–2005 theme. This particular article provided me with such statistics as FDR held 1020 press conferences during his presidency, and that FDR first met with reporters for his first press conference four days after his first inauguration. Riley also provides sources where the transcripts of his press conferences can be found, which was helpful to me in continuing to find out FDR's relationship with the press.
Ritchie, Donald A. Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: First Harvard University Press, 1992.
Late in my research, I discovered this text. Ritchie confirmed the thesis I'd formulated about FDR and his relationship with the press. This book also highlighted details I was able to use as a footnote, including how FDR moved the focus of the press in 1932 from Congress, to the President and the White House.
Taranto, James, and Leo, Leonard, ed. Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House. A Wall Street Journal Book, Free Press, 2004.
The appendix of this book offered statistics on all four of FDR's elections. Interestingly enough, his popularity went down, especially from 1936 to 1940. His leadership in the war did not get more people to vote for him in 1944.
Brochure
- -. "Presidents Make History in the White House." White House Historical Association, 2004.
This brochure from the White House supports my ideas that FDR planted confidence in the American people. It also provided me with a great statistic on the number of people who tuned in to the first fireside chat (60 million) that was broadcast only eight days after FDR's first inauguration.
Notes
Ruddiman, Joan. Lecture of Donald A. Ritchie to NHD Summer Institute participants at Congress. July 22, 2004.
After I discovered Ritchie's text, Dr. Ruddiman shared her notes on Ritchie's lecture. These notes were helpful in small details I used within the body and footnotes of paper, including information on the reporter who covered FDR for eight years and did not know about his disability. Also, Ritchie notes FDR's press agents as the "flip side of the leak" because they really helped FDR to convey a positive image of him to the public.
Periodical
Meacham, Jon. "Portrait of a President: American Dreamer." Newsweek. Vol. CXLIII, No. 24. Jun. 14, 2004. pp. 26–45
This article helped me to recognize Reagan as another Great Communicator because he was able to rise above media criticism. Also, although Reagan, as President, worked against FDR's New Deal policies, he admired Roosevelt's leadership, and his first four presidential votes went to FDR.
Websites
Baker, Kevin. "FDR's Fireside Chats." Kevin Baker. Ed. Stanley Marcus and Robert A. Wilson. 2 Jan.2005 <http://www.kevinbaker.info/e_ag_fdrfc.html>.
This source contains background information on the fireside chats. It has an important quote of Frances Perkins, FDR's secretary of labor, describing how Roosevelt almost looked like he was pretending to tell a story in front of the fireplace when he delivered a fireside chats. This shows his charisma to use radio effectively and proves that America at the time did well in believing their President was a personal friend.
Baker, Kevin. "Why America Loved Roosevelt Fifty Years After His Death, Recalling the Power of His Principled Pragmatism." Kevin Baker. The Washington Post Company. 2 Jan. 2005 <http://www.kevinbaker.info/a_wp_walr.html>.
This site describes a poll a congressman ran comparing Jesus Christ and FDR to schoolchildren in New York. God came in second! This showed me how much the nation worshiped him in his time.
Bradford, Henry M. "Marconi's Three Transatlantic Radio Stations in Cape Breton." Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society Journal Vol. 1 (1998). 4 Apr. 2001. 7 Feb. 2005 <http://www.newscotland1398.net/marconi100/marconi1.html>.
This site gave me the year of the "birth of radio," thus proving my point that it was important that FDR valued the technological brilliance of radio since it had only been around for some thirty years. As can be heard with sound recordings that I have heard, the scratches and background noises were very conspicuous in Roosevelt era radio.
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I considered the following three sources together:
Bruce, Anthony, and William Cogar. "Pearl Harbor." An Encyclopedia of Naval History. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 1998. 21 Jan 2005. Facts On File, Inc. American History Online. <www.factsonfile.com>.
Laurie, Clayton D. "Pearl Harbor." In Jeffries, John W., Katherine Liapis Segrue, and Gary B. Nash, eds. Encyclopedia of American History: The Great Depression and World War II, 1929 to 1945, Volume 8. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2003. 21 Jan 2005. Facts On File, Inc. American History Online. <www.factsonfile.com>.
Roberts, Priscilla. "Pearl Harbor." In Tucker, Spencer C., gen. ed. Encyclopedia of American Military History, vol. 3. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2003. 21 Jan 2005. Facts On File, Inc. American History Online. <www.factsonfile.com>.
These three sources all contained a brief summary of the happenings at Pearl Harbor. From these, I was able to do an easy analysis of the losses at Pearl Harbor, which proved to be a good counter for Thomas Fleming's criticism of what FDR said in his February 23, 1942 fireside chat. Although the information from these sources did not exactly match each other, I was able to do an approximation. Also, the facts on how the Japanese attacked were good details for my paper.
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Johnson, Earthen and Bannon, Kelleigh. "Biography of Franklin D. Roosevelt" <http://xroads.virginia.edu/~UG03/fdr/FDR/fdrindex.html>
This site gives a summary and analysis of each fireside chat. Also, George Bush gave a radio address on September 15, 2001. Interestingly enough, the authors point out that the similarities in the speech to "Day of Infamy" may be due to the similarities between 9/11 and Pearl Harbor, and that George Bush might have been looking for "guidance from the success of FDR."
Levine, Lawrence W. and Levine, Cornelia R. "The People and the President: America's Conversation with FDR." WNYC. 1 Dec. 2004 <http://www.wnyc.org/books/456>
This website contains the preface and introduction of the book. It provided me with really good stats on the amount of letters FDR received during his presidency (15 million), the percentage of the population who had radios before and after his presidency (62%–90%), and the amount of people who either listened to, or read the December 9, 1941, and the February 23, 1942 fireside chats.
Mankowski, Diana, and Raissa Jose. "Flashback: 70th Anniversary of FDR's Fireside Chats." The Museum of Broadcast Communications. 2 Dec. 2004 <http://www.museum.tv/mbcfdr.shtml>.
This source explained the way fireside chats were prepared with very common language. Speechwriters wrote them. The authors also explained how FDR used simple analogies to explain complex situations to the nation. This site was very useful since it had quotes of people's reactions to the fireside chats. At the top of the page was a quote used in the body of my paper that I found helpful in portraying how the Americans felt at hearing FDR come into their homes through radio.
Powell, Jim. "How FDR's New Deal Harmed Millions of Poor People." Cato Institute. 23 Dec. 2003. 2 Jan. 2005 <http://www.cato.org/dailys/12-29-03.html>.
This author gives reasons on why FDR's New Deal hurt millions of poor people. It states that the New Deal, although we think it helped America get out of the Depression, enforces many excise taxes, including on radio and electricity. A stat from another source states that at the beginning of Roosevelt's presidency, 62% of the population had radios and at the end 90% had them. This must have caused many to pay extra taxes. This author also writes that the excise taxes may have fallen "disproportionately on the less affluent." If this was the case, then FDR had a way of making people think that something good is happening, while in reality, it is happening slower and with more damage than the public is made to believe.
- -. "Between the Wars: The Radio Priest." 1 Dec. 2004 <http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/hist409/coughlin/coughlin.html>.
This is interesting as it is the first concrete example of someone adamantly opposed to Roosevelt. Charles Coughlin was a popular "radio priest" with weekly sermons in the 1930's. He was supportive of Roosevelt when FDR was first elected into office, but later, Coughlin changed his mind due to the slow progression of action with the New Deal. Also, the negative publicity Coughlin broadcasted against FDR may somewhat have affected the popularity of FDR in the nation. This may be one reason why the votes for him dropped in 1940. The Coughlin story reinforces the premise that radio had an impact on American viewpoints.
- -. "European Timeline." World War II 60th Anniversary Committee: To Honor Those Who Served. <http://www.60wwii.mil/Presentation/Timeline/euro_timeline.cfm>
This site provided me with the date that Germany declared war on the United States, that is, December 11, 1941, three days after the U.S. declared war on Japan.
- -. "Franklin D. Roosevelt" White House History. <http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/fr32.html>
This was a bio of FDR. It provided indications of his personality, and how his mind worked. I found out under what circumstances he became president and some important laws he made, or tried to make. It's interesting that he helped with the beginnings of the UN and he proposed a plan for the economy in his first 100 days, indicating a decisive and bold leadership style.
- -. "Rosenman, Samuel I." Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum. National Archives and Records Administration. 2 Dec. 2004 <http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu:8000/findbrow.cgi?Submit=Submit+Query&collection=Rosenman%2C+Samuel+I.>.
This biography of Sam Rosenman, FDR speechwriter and special aide, was important to me to see how much FDR's right hand man influenced his thoughts. It also correlates to the oral history with Rosenman in which he mentioned how FDR presented his ideas to speechwriters. This source indicated that FDR might have taken some techniques used by his speechwriters when he drafted and revised the "Day of Infamy" Speech.
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