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The Rhode Island "Washington": Meaning Making in Social Studies Through Art History*
Joseph M. Piro
Long Island University
'Tis character that breathes,'tis soul that twines
Round the rich canvas, trac'd in living lines.
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—Sarah Wentworth Morton
Boston poet writing about the portraits of Gilbert Stuart |
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| THE RHODE ISLAND STATE HOUSE in Providence is an imposing structure. It is also an architecturally significant one. Built of white Georgia marble between 1895 and 1904, it has one of only four self- supporting marble covered domes found in the world. It was placed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. When you enter the building and make your way up to the second floor rotunda, you come to the building's State Reception Room. Looking around, you encounter many diverse historical artifacts such as a small Rhode Island flag that orbited the moon during the Apollo II mission and the silver service set of the battleship USS Rhode Island. However, on the west wall hangs the room's real treasure—an 1802 full-length portrait of George Washington by America's premier portrait artist Gilbert Stuart. At first nothing about it jumps out at you. After all, Washington's image is everywhere in the United States—even the world—and certainly appropriate in the context of an American government state house. But a full-length portrait of Washington and by an artist of the stature of Gilbert Stuart? What could be the story behind this particular work and how and why did it find its way here? |
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One might think that such questions, asked about any prominent portrait, especially one of Washington, would pique the curiosity of teachers and students and provide a teacher the opportunity for turning a class into full-scale history detectives. But, perhaps, we should think again. In a study by the National Center for History in the Schools,1 when high school teachers of world and American history were surveyed as to the frequency with which they used various instructional materials in the classroom, approximately ninety percent of American and sixty-four percent of world history teachers indicated they seldom or never used art in studying a historical period. The infrequent use of art remains true even though there has been an increase in document-based learning in classrooms along with increasing numbers of high school students enrolling in art classes.2 Omission of painting, in particular, from historical documents deprives teachers and students of a potent instructional tool for interpreting the past, one inspiring hands-on, inquiry-based, problem- solving behaviors. This article will speak to this state of affairs by focusing on one painting—the Rhode Island George Washington portrait—discussing its historical background and context, tracing its route to Rhode Island, and suggesting how all teachers can use paintings as compelling and challenging tools in building historical literacy. |
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The Beginning Chapter: Commissioning the Portrait | |
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In February, 1800, the General Assembly of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantation, as it was then known, convened a business meeting. At the meeting it was voted and resolved that a "committee...report to this Assembly such mode and means as they shall deem expedient to be adapted to perpetuate the remembrances of the virtues of the late General George Washington."3 It is interesting to ask why this action was taken. |
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One explanation is that it was the fashionable thing to do. Washington had died in December of 1799 and a kind of "Washington fever" was already sweeping much of the newly forming nation. Washington, even a few short weeks after his death, had already achieved icon-like status. As Marcus Cunliffe writes, "America needed a Saint George; every symbol of national unity was valuable. He [Washington] did genuinely embody aspirations common nearly to all."4 That a portrait of George Washington would be commissioned was therefore entirely understandable. That Gilbert Stuart (1755–1828) would be asked to paint it also made sense. Not only was he a Rhode Island native (his birthplace in Saunderstown, Rhode Island may still be visited), but he had a sterling reputation as a social portraitist of great talent. |
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Portrait painting was a significant artistic genre in late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century America, probably because of its high regard in England. The "English School" of artists including Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723–1792), Thomas Gainsborough (1727–1788), and George Romney (1734–1802)—all major influences on Stuart's painting style—had elevated portrait painting to a great art form. The portrait market in America was growing, with an emergent upper class eager for the social status conferred on anyone who commissioned and sat for a portrait. It is probable that it was simply being mindful of this, when the Rhode Island Assembly addressed the matter of the Washington portrait. The February, 1800 record reads:
The citizens of this state having, on all proper occasions, uniformly expressed their inviolate attachment to the person of the late General George Washington and their entire approbation of his conduct in public and private life: the General Assembly, deeply impressed with the importance of perpetuating his eminent virtues which have shone with unrivalled luster, and of transmitting to posterity the high estimation in which he is held by his fellow citizens...and who expressed in his features the benevolence of his nature, and manifested in his person the dignity of his mind, Do Resolve, That two portraits of him, drawn at full length by some eminent artist, be procured at the expense of the State, and that one of them be placed in the Senate chamber in each of the State houses of Newport and Providence; and that Messrs. Champlin, Channing and Ives, with such as the Senate may add, be a committee to procure the same.5
This resolution may just have been the fashionable thing to enact, but there may have been other motives as well. |
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In describing the early years of the nineteenth century, historian Gordon Wood has written: "Everything seemed to be coming apart, and murder, suicide, theft, and mobbing became increasingly common responses to the burdens that liberty and the expectations of gain were placing on people."6 These growing pains of the new republic were far more severe than anyone had envisioned. Instead of an orderly and measured transition to a newly free country, there was a period of disorder and conflict. By 1800, there were approximately four million or so people counted as living in America. By all reports, they did not get along particularly well. Wood continues, "By 1800 Americans were already known for pushing and shoving one another in public and for their aversion to ceremony.... Violence was perhaps no more common than it had been earlier but now it seemed more bizarre."7 This kind of social breakdown was not confined only to the public arena. Wood also discloses that fist fighting broke out repeatedly in the Congress and state legislatures. Rhode Island had some stormy times in ratifying the Constitution. When Washington took the oath of office in April, 1789, Rhode Island was still not part of the republic. Threatened with treatment as a foreign government, it ratified the Constitution by the narrowest margin (two votes) on May 29, 1790. |
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These facts may be quite new for students. Many are not covered in detail in history survey books. In this light it is interesting to hypothesize that the Rhode Island Assembly's commissioning of a painting of Washington served a larger agenda. Because of Stuart's reputation as a portrait painter, legislative officials knew a portrait by him would not only reveal a sitter's outward appearance but, more importantly, expose the greatness of his soul. What better way to keep the behavior of state legislators in check, warding off potential "civility" problems, than to have the painted presence of George Washington stare down on them? Raising this question with students might broaden their knowledge and understanding of the public role of art as well as its power to unify a potentially fractious society. |
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In support of the idea that a painting of a founding father could have this sort of profound effect, one can cite a recent biography, Franklin Pierce: New Hampshire's Favorite Son, in which historian Peter Wallner tells of the guiding principles that Pierce's father (a contemporary of George Washington and other founding fathers), tried to instill in his children. Significant among them was respect for the common man, love of politics, and reverence for the founding fathers.8 That respect for the founding fathers as a guiding principle of life was widespread in American society, especially in New England in the early nineteenth century, is quite plausible. |
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The Artist and the Subject | |
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The Rhode Island legislative committee, having been given $1200 ($600 per portrait) to spend, commissioned Gilbert Stuart to do the portraits. Stuart is quite a remarkable historical figure for students to investigate. Born in Rhode Island on December 3, 1755 into modest circumstances, he was the son of a tobacconist who was a Scottish immigrant. In 1772, Stuart traveled to Edinburgh to study with a Scottish portraitist named Cosmo Alexander (ca. 1724–1772). Unfortunately, when he got to Scotland, Alexander died suddenly, stranding Stuart early in his career. After a voyage back to America, he set out again for Europe in 1774, this time to London, where after two unsuccessful years he asked the expatriate artist Benjamin West (1738–1820) for help. West took him on as a pupil and from that point, his fortunes rose. Stuart became a well-known portrait painter in London, eventually exhibiting at the Royal Academy. |
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However, he soon found himself in trouble. Because of a somewhat mercurial personality, now believed by some scholars as symptomatic of manic-depressive illness,9 he was plagued by problems such as drunkenness and unpredictable temper flare-ups. He also believed he belonged to an "aristocracy of talent"10 and demanded to be treated accordingly. With mounting debt (his frequent dinner parties in London were said to be exceptionally lavish), he moved to Dublin to escape a lengthening line of creditors. Stuart had also, apparently, picked up a nagging addiction to nicotine, and the source of much of his debt was said to reflect this difficulty. In 1793, he returned to the United States to, in his words, "make a fortune" by painting "a plurality of portraits" of Washington.11 A letter of introduction from Chief Justice John Jay (another of his portrait subjects) helped secure a first sitting with the President. |
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When it came to sitting as a subject for a portrait, many Revolutionary War figures were aware they were "posing for posterity."12 George Washington was no exception. He carefully crafted an image of great civility and took pains to preserve its integrity. But even though he realized he was posing for posterity, he was not particularly enthusiastic about it. Stuart, in fact, said that as soon as Washington sat, "an apathy seemed to seize him, and a vacuity spread over his countenance most appalling to paint."13 Stuart, in his lifetime, is known to have completed approximately 114 portraits of Washington, 111 replicas of the three originals he made from life. These three originals painted when Washington actually sat for Stuart during the period of 1795–1796 are known as the Vaughan, the Athenaeum, and the Lansdowne. Of these originals, the Lansdowne probably served as the prototype for the painting that today hangs in Providence (Figure 1). It is this work we will first discuss. |
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Figure 1
Gilbert Stuart's portrait of George Washington at the Rhode Island Statehouse.
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The Lansdowne Portrait: Analyzing Art with Students | |
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In terms of historical narrative, students may find the story behind the Lansdowne portrait (Figure 2) intriguing. Stuart started to paint the Lansdowne with the help of several assistants before Washington actually arrived at his studio. If students look closely at the work, they may notice Washington's awkward dimensions. It turns out the model substituting for Washington was a five foot six inch friend of Stuart. Not only that, Stuart used his own hand as the outstretched one painted in the portrait. When the six foot two inch Washington arrived at Stuart's studio, these proportions were already in place. Further, Washington posed for the Lansdowne wearing his false teeth (a favorite anecdote for students), which pulled the lower part of his face out of shape. Washington used them for only a short time but this period coincided with his posing for the portrait. |
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Figure 2
Gilbert Stuart's portrait of George Washington at the National Portrait Gallery.
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In addition, approaching this painting allegorically and analyzing its individual components with students is also fascinating. First, ask them to take a close look at Washington. More likely than not, they will describe a civilian not a military Washington, a Washington standing face-front, out of uniform but in formal dress (a black velvet suit). Next, lead their eye toward other details in the painting. The furniture including the table, chair, and bench, is symbolic of the new American republic. Some items like the chair even contain defining insignias. Look at the books in the lower left propped up against the leg of the table. They, too, are representative of America—their topic is the new republic. In the painting's background and extending into the upper right hand corner, you can see a storm abating. A rainbow appears indicating this storm's end. Clearly, this storm alludes to the revolution weathered successfully by the new nation. And, just as Washington is the center of this triumph, so he is the center of the painting. Finally, the marble column directly behind Washington's head can spark interpretation. Does it refer to Washington's liking for all things Roman or does it give a sense of where Stuart felt Washington's philosophical roots were planted and the pantheon in which he should be placed? |
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The Munro-Lenox Portrait | |
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It is necessary next to direct our attention to the Munro-Lenox revision of the Lansdowne portrait (Figure 3) which dates from 1800 or so, about four years after the Lansdowne was painted. It was just around this time that the State legislatures of both Connecticut and Rhode Island commissioned Stuart for George Washington paintings. When Stuart painted the Munro-Lenox Washington he was aware that he needed to revise the Lansdowne. First, he did correct the painting's proportions. Washington no longer looks shorter and stouter than he actually was. In addition, his hair protrudes slightly less. There is also a difference in the position of Washington's extended right hand. In the Lansdowne, it is pointed stiffly straight whereas in the Munro-Lenox it rests on papers unfolded on the table. Also, Washington's stance was changed for this painting, as was the floor upon which he stands. In the Lansdowne a Turkish rug covers the floor; in the Munro-Lenox, the floor is geometrically patterned. The background for both works, though, is almost identical. |
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Figure 3
Gilbert Stuart's portrait of George Washington at the New York Public Library.
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As was Stuart's practice, he and his assistants probably painted replicas of the Munro-Lenox to fill the Rhode Island commissions. (The original is located today in the New York Public Library). Although it is impossible to know how much of these replicas was actually painted by Stuart himself, Evans tells us that for replicas of the Lansdowne, at least, it was not unusual for Stuart to paint only the head and hands leaving the rest for his assistants.14 As any portrait artist knows, it is necessary to be in the "business of painting" and this was especially true of Stuart. He readily accepted many orders for replicas and engravings of his work, hence his need for studio assistants. Finally, it appeared that he had still not mended his careless ways where financial discipline was concerned. When he died in Boston on July 9, 1828, he did so both intestate and insolvent. |
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The story of the Rhode Island "Washingtons" (which we believe to be replicas of the Munro-Lenox Washington) ends in March, 1802, when both portraits were completed by Stuart and arrived in Providence on the ship Eagle. Records in the Assembly indicate that another resolution was voted and passed to assign $400.05, again to the portrait committee, to cover costs of framing the portraits and transporting them from Philadelphia.15 A final mention in the June, 1802 records authorizes $126.03 to be paid for "placing the portrait of General Washington in the Providence Court House."16 The first portrait was hung in the Senate Chamber of the Old Providence State House on Benefit Street where it remained until 1901 when it was moved to the State Reception Room of the new State House. In May/June 1802, the second portrait took its place in the Senate Chamber of the Newport State House and has been displayed there ever since. |
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Further Classroom Uses of the Rhode Island "Washington": Painting as Document | |
Using a portrait of Washington hanging in the Rhode Island State House offers a valuable teaching opportunity. Not only does it present a chance to show the intersection of history and art, but also allows students to take a work of art and treat it as an historical document, not only asking questions about what, in Jacob Neusner's words, the "text" is saying but also what it is doing where it is found.17 Probing both the painting itself and learning its history can give students practice in developing an authentic sense of historical knowledge and, more importantly, historical understanding compatible with the recommendations in the following passage found in the National Standards for History:
True historical understanding requires students to engage in historical thinking: to raise questions and to marshal solid evidence in support of their answers; to go beyond the facts presented in their textbooks and examine the historical record for themselves; to consult documents, journals, diaries, artifacts, historic sites, works of art, quantitative data, and other evidence from the past, and to do so imaginatively—taking into account the historical context in which these records were created and comparing the multiple points of view of those on the scene at the time.18
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Using paintings as historical documents calls attention to the challenges of using paintings to teach history. Teachers unfamiliar with the classroom practice of "reading" paintings,19 may require support in gaining skills in this area. They can try to develop interdisciplinary learning units with content area specialists. Such specialists can serve as art history "coaches" and show them the catalog of artworks that can be used to extend historical thinking. Another concern may be the availability of instructional resources—such as these artworks—necessary to implement an interdisciplinary unit. Teachers and classrooms may not have textbooks, art reproductions, and general art supplies to craft a credible art unit. One solution may be to use the numerous resources available on the Internet. Paintings can be quickly downloaded for classroom use and directly displayed using LCD projectors or made into transparencies, and virtual visits to museums and historical sites and landmarks can easily be accomplished. |
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What follows are teaching suggestions offered to facilitate the use of the Rhode Island Washington. However, similar activities could apply to a local portrait which students could be taken to see, or alternatively, a teacher might have students do research to see if their state has a portrait of George Washington located in any local or state legislative building. They could then try to trace the trail of the painting using primary documents. It might be possible to have them conduct interviews with local historians to learn more about historical painting. |
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Teaching Suggestions | |
- Have students look at the Rhode Island portrait of Washington. Ask them to record everything they observe. Repeat the process a second time. List these observations on a chart, transparency, or in student notebooks and classify them into discrete categories.
- Have students research the biography of Gilbert Stuart (<www.gilbertstuartmuseum.com> is a good beginning). Have students look at some of his other portraiture and compare these with the Rhode Island "Washington" for things like style, color, mood, dress, pose, background, iconography.
- Have students research the biography of George Washington. Divide his life into appropriate time periods, e.g. Washington as youth, the military Washington, the Presidential years, and have students construct an appropriate response to them such as a biographical mural, timeline, illustrated biography, George Washington "atlas" of significant places visited by him.
- Compare the Lansdowne and Munro-Lenox portraits to that painted by Stuart for the Rhode Island commission. Discuss differences and similarities. Discuss messages communicated to the nineteenth-century viewer as well as those who came later.
- Have students go to the website <www.virginia.edu/gwpapers> and locate a copy of the letter Washington wrote to Stuart confirming his appointment to sit for the Lansdowne portrait. What insights into Washington does this letter give us?
- Since 1968, the Lansdowne Portrait had been on anonymous loan to the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C. In 1999, Lord Harry Dalmeny, heir of the titled British family that owns it, wanted $20 million for the painting or its return. On March 14, 1999, a foundation donated $30 million to fund the purchase of the painting, for a new display case, and for a tour of the Lansdowne portrait around the United States. What does this tell us about the significance of his painting?
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Notes
* Participation in the history seminar "George Washington and the Origins of the American Republic," directed by Professor Gordon Wood at Brown University and supported by the Gilder Lehrman Institute for American History, helped to shape this article.
1. Jeffrey Thomas, "The Numbers Game," Humanities, 13 (1992): 37–38.
2. S. Roey, et al (2001) The 1998 high school transcript study tabulations (NCES 2001–498) Washington, DC: US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Available <http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/2001 498.pdf>.
3. Records of the General Assembly, State of Rhode Island, February, 1800, 6.
4. Marcus Cunliffe, George Washington: Man and Monument (Mount Vernon: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, 1998), p. 139. Cunliffe also tells us that as early as 1755, babies were being christened after Washington and people in the country were paying to view his figure portrayed in waxworks exhibitions.
5. Records of the General Assembly, State of Rhode Island, February, 1800, p. 29.
6. Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1991), p. 306. Wood relates that one of the major problems confronting American Society (and Rhode Island was not exempt) was alcohol abuse. Promoting this was an epidemic rise in distilleries in the United States.
7. Ibid, 307.
8. Peter Wallner, Franklin Pierce: New Hampshire's Favorite Son. Concord, NH: Plaidswede Press, 2004
9. Dorinda Evans, The Genius of Gilbert Stuart (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 13.
10. Robert Hughes, American Visions: The Epic History of Art in America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), p. 129.
11. Evans, p. 53.
12. Joseph Ellis, Founding Brothers (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001), p. 18.
13. <www.americanrevolution.org>
14. Evans, p. 69. Referring to this practice Stuart is purported to have remarked, "I copy the works of God and leave clothes to tailors."
15. Records of the General Assembly State of Rhode Island, February, 1802, p. 21.
16. Records of the General Assembly State of Rhode Island, June 1802, p. 16.
17. Sam Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), p. x. Wineburg also notes that some historians champion for history that begins with "unlearning" in an attempt to disabuse students of the impression that history is a fixed story. For example, to accomplish this, he suggests that students pretend to be museum curators who, upon receiving primary documents, pretend to be curators who must annotate and organize these documents for an exhibition.
18. National Council for History in our Schools, National Standards for History-Basic Edition, UCLA, 1996. Available <http://nchs.ucla.edu/standards/>.
19. J.M. Piro, "The Picture of Reading: Deriving meaning in literacy through image," The Reading Teacher, 56:2 (2002), pp. 126–134.
References
Avi, J. Finding Providence: The Story of Roger Williams (An I Can Read Chapter Book). New York: HarperTrophy, 1997.
Flexner, J.T. On Desperate Seas: A Biography of Gilbert Stuart. New York: Fordham University Press, 1995.
Flexner, J.T. America's Old Masters: Benjamin West, John Singleton Copley, Charles Wilson Peale and Gilbert Stuart. New York: Dover Publications, 1994.
Flexner, J.T. Stuart—A Great Life in Brief. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955.
Gaustad, E. Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America. Judson Press, 1998.
On-Line Resources
University of Virginia
www.virginia.edu/gwpapers
An outstanding site for primary source information on all Washingtonia. It contains information such as maps, articles, and significant historical documents. It also has an excellent slide presentation on Washington's life that most students will find fascinating.
The Gilbert Stuart Museum
www.gilbertstuartmuseum.org
The website of the Rhode Island based museum with information on Stuart, his original birthplace, career, and paintings.
University of Virginia
http://xroads.Virginia.edu/~CAP/gw/gwstatue.html
This site contains a multitude of Washington images found in our nation's Capitol.
The Worcester Art Museum
www.worcesterart.org
The website of the Worcester Art Museum in Massachusetts. It contains an excellent summary of the life and some major works of Gilbert Stuart.
The National Portrait Gallery
www.npg.si.edu
The National Portrait Gallery's site, which contains an excellent collection of Stuart's most significant portraiture. It has several examples of paintings by Stuart of George Washington.
The American Revolution
www.americanrevolution.org
An interesting source for general information of topics of the American Revolution. It has information on Stuart's purported conversations with some of his portrait models and how they perceived him.
The State of Rhode Island
www.state.ri.us
Rhode Island's State House is presented on this site. It gives information on the State Capitol Building as well as pictures of some important historical artifacts found there.
The National Gallery of Art
www.nga.gov
The National Gallery of Art's site with images of Stuart's portraits of John Jay, John Adams, and Abigail Adams.
On-Line Museums with Gilbert Stuart Works
Metropolitan Museum of Art
New York, NY
www.metmuseum.org
The Brooklyn Museum of Art
Brooklyn, NY
www.brooklynart.org
The Frick Collection
New York, NY
www.frick.org
National Portrait Gallery
Washington, DC
www.npg.si.org
National Gallery of Art
Washington, DC
www.nga.gov
Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco
San Francisco, CA
www.thinker.org
Museum of Fine Arts
Boston, MA
www.mfa.org
Phoenix Art Museum
Phoenix, AZ
www.phxart.org
Portland Art Museum
Portland, OR
www.pam.org
Utah Museum of Fine Arts
University of Utah
www.utah.edu/umfa
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