Book Review

In Hard Water, Kate Foss-Mollan surveys the state and local political considerations that guided the development of Milwaukee's water system. She divides her study into four eras: the creation of the water supply from 1867–1910; the development of sewerage and filtration plants under the Socialist administrations that ran the city from 1910–1960; the extension of the water supply to the suburbs in the two decades after World War II; and the struggle to provide potable water in the post-1975 era. From her examination of the state and local commission reports and court proceedings, Foss-Mollan stresses that a proprietary attitude, the belief that the water system should generate revenue to help finance other city services, defined the city's water policies. This outlook led the Water Commissioners to favor profitable service extensions in the suburbs over the more costly extension of services to the lower income Polish residents on the city's south side and to delay construction of a filtration plant until the federal government provided funds.	1
Foss-Mollan challenges the idea that professionalization and the good government movement fostered the improvement of public works. Instead, she argues convincingly that Wisconsin's state charter, which placed control of finance and taxation in the hands of appointed (not elected) administrative boards, limited the ability of Milwaukee's political bosses and special interests to use the water supply to gain political advantage. The priorities of administrative boards including the city's Board of Public Works (which replaced the Board of Water Commissioners in 1875), and the state's rate-setting Public Service Commission (which replaced the Railroad Commission) determined how, when, and where the city would extend and cleanse its water supply and set water rates. Conflicts over water between city officials, between Milwaukee and its suburbs, between the state and city, and between the city and the larger region all receive attention in this study.	2
Foss-Mollan draws upon her historical knowledge and her experience as a Milwaukee water department chemist to analyze the 1993 cryptosporidium crisis that arose from a switch in coagulants and spring runoff conditions. She argues that the city's response to the episode stemmed from media attention and the desire to appear to do something rather than a thoughtful, scientific approach to the problem. As a result, costly expenditures to simultaneously introduce several untested technologies delayed spending on necessary safety improvements.	3
Throughout the text, Foss-Mollan offers useful bibliographical references for students of water supply and urban history. She assumes a general knowledge of the region's politics and geography. In places, her narrative moves between topics without transitions. A chart detailing the responsibilities and dates of the various commissions, a clearer map of the region, and a more comprehensive index would prove most helpful. In her introduction, Foss-Mollan notes that comparing Milwaukee to other cities at similar stages of development will foster a better understanding of how water supply policies have been and can be resolved. One can hope that historians and policy makers will take up Foss-Mollan's challenge.	4
Dr. Carolyn G. Shapiro-Shapin is associate professor of history at Grand Valley State University.

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