Marilyn J. Boxer

Rethinking the Socialist Construction and International Career of the Concept "Bourgeois Feminism"

On Bastille Day 1889, German socialist Clara Zetkin announced to delegates from twenty countries assembled in Paris on the centennial of the French Revolution that "the emancipation of women, together with that of all humanity, will take place only with the emancipation of labor from capital." Zetkin assured these founders of the Second International that they need not fear losing "proletarian" women to others who were claiming to advance their interests, especially the women's rights groups who held their own international congresses in the French capital that summer. Despite her own comfortable origins as the daughter of a schoolteacher and a doctor's widow who had herself co-founded a women's rights organization, Zetkin denounced the nonsocialist "bourgeois women's movement" as a vain effort "built upon sand ... [with] no basis in reality." While challenging her overwhelmingly male audience to recognize women's need for paid work to ensure their economic independence, she emphasized in this speech that "bourgeois" women offered no solution to the "woman question." Speaking at a women's rights congress in Berlin in 1896, she startled participants by declaring herself their "adversary [Gegnerin]."¹

Zetkin's message would reverberate far and wide and last into the twenty-first century, bolstered in its long life by New Left and feminist activists and scholars, including historians of the 1970s generation. In 2004, anthropologist Kristen Ghodsee, assessing the condition of women in postsocialist Eastern Europe, asserted that "not much has changed since 1907," and quoted Zetkin's speech at the First International Congress of Socialist Women, held that year in Stuttgart: "There cannot be a unified struggle for the entire [female] sex ... No, it must be a class struggle of all the exploited without differences of sex against all exploiters no matter what sex they belong to." Socialists must not, Zetkin had stressed, collaborate with "bourgeois feminists," even on issues of common concern. Drawing on this speech, Ghodsee suggests that the development of educational and advocacy institutions modeled on those created by women in "the West" threatens postcommunist Eastern European women with a new kind of "cultural feminism" that, like the earlier "bourgeois feminism" to which she likens it, is inappropriate to their real interests. Other scholars attest to the persistence of this concept.²

"Bourgeois feminism," however, is a slippery term that relies on a notion of "class" that has been substantially "reworked" in light of cultural studies and gender analysis. Historians today point to multiple ways in which gender and class work together, showing, for example, how wives sans profession became in the nineteenth century a marker of upwardly mobile masculinity. The binary distinction between public and private that underlay both scholarly and popular notions of gender has similarly been challenged, and the "public sphere" itself is seen to have been constructed so as to exclude women.³ But no one has yet looked critically at how earlier, dichotomous notions of class and gender relationships have affected women's movements and their historians.

The construct that Zetkin and socialists of her era developed to distance themselves from burgeoning women's rights movements had its origins in European class politics at the turn of the twentieth century.⁴ That construct was redeployed by leftists in a later period of feminist militancy, and historians had a role in passing along the politics and rhetoric of the earlier age to a new generation of students and activists. In addition to questioning the class basis on which this long-accepted distinction rests, we need to create new histories of feminism that are no longer encumbered by problematic assumptions about women and putative class interests or by socialist politics of the past. Such a reinterpretation might also shed light on the limitations of the European Left and its lost opportunities in the long process that Geoff Eley has termed "forging democracy."⁵

The origins of the concept "bourgeois feminism" lie deep in the early history of Marxian socialism. Both Marx and Engels portrayed the working-class woman as a victim of (industrial) capitalism, Marx offering a detailed portrait of the death of a twenty-year-old milliner from overwork, and Engels reporting his observation in England that "most of the prostitutes of the town had their employment in the mills to thank for their present situation." In his landmark book The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884), Engels famously declared that "within the family, he is the bourgeois and the wife represents the proletariat," but neither he nor Marx showed sympathy for organized feminism. For Marx, it represented "false women's emancipation"; he declared that "German women should have begun by driving their men to self-emancipation." Engels wrote to an American correspondent in 1891 that, thanks to efforts to organize socialist women, "the antiquated semi-bourgeois women's rights asses will soon be ordered to the rear."⁶

The most widely read of the male socialists on the woman question, however, was the German leader August Bebel. In the introduction to his classic work Woman under Socialism (1883), Bebel noted that "the hostile [feindliche] sisters have ... a number of points of contact, on which they can, although marching separately, strike jointly [with socialists]." While the extent of Bebel's support for nonsocialist women's movements is disputed, early in his career he did assist his countrywoman Louise Otto-Peters in creating a women's emancipation organization, and he also acknowledged that "working-class women have more in common with bourgeois women or aristocratic women than do working-class men with men of other social classes."⁷

On women's issues, however, the most influential socialist activist of the time was Zetkin, who articulated and strenuously maintained what became the orthodox Marxist-socialist position on women's rights movements. Her 1889 Paris speech became what German women's historian Ute Frevert terms "the manifesto of the proletarian women's movement."⁸ Although early in her career Zetkin expressed strong support for many goals of the women's rights movement, she came to view it as a "serious, dangerous power of the counter-revolution" that must be stopped. She sincerely believed that the condition of women, to whom she once referred as "slaves," would be remedied only through socialist revolution.⁹ Zetkin prescribed a "clean break [reinliche Scheidung]" between proletarian parties and other political movements. Despite continuing to advocate some feminist goals, she expressed "extreme animosity" toward the idea of sisterhood, using derisory language such as "stupid feminist dreams about harmony" to describe feminist politics, and calling feminists "muddle-headed, wishy-washy, weak." By the mid-1890s, she had set in motion a worldwide movement to pillory nonsocialist women's rights efforts. Her biweekly journal, Die Gleichheit [Equality], addressed to women workers and party members, "untiringly differentiated between socialist and bourgeois women, socialist and bourgeois tactics," Jean Quataert has said. Her rejection of "bourgeois feminism" was "ostentatious," commented her French contemporary, the socialist and feminist activist Madeleine Pelletier. Women's historians have termed it "savage" and "vicious." It was also enormously effective.¹⁰

Who were these "bourgeois feminists" who posed such an alleged danger to working women? Prevailing marriage and property laws in late-nineteenth-century Europe ensured that bourgeoises rarely enjoyed the privileges and power of the capitalist bourgeois. Some rejected the values of the marketplace, and many continued women's traditional philanthropic work to aid poor women. Increasingly, however, daughters of bourgeois families also worked for pay. As teachers, postal or sales clerks, and low-level administrators, they in no way fit the image of the socialist ideal, the laborers in "the great virile trades ... heroes who brought about the second industrial revolution," as Michelle Perrot puts it. Nevertheless, they were assumed by socialists to be, in Rosa Luxemburg's inimitable phrase, "the parasites of the parasites of the social body."¹¹

In linking the words "feminism" and "bourgeois," socialists drew on a well-developed terminology laden with negative affect. Beyond "bourgeois classes," myriad usages abound: bourgeois deviation, bourgeois family, bourgeois individualism, bourgeois morality, bourgeois respectability, and, of course, bourgeois feminism—but rarely bourgeois socialism. But what does "bourgeois" mean? An imaginary other, a negative stereotype, even a mod way to say passé—"so last year"? Once a marker of residence or legal order, by the late decades of the nineteenth century it had become merely a pejorative epithet.¹² Heavily influenced by Marxist notions of a "bourgeois revolution," it was (and is) used to denigrate not only individuals but, through a kind of conceptual and linguistic slippage, also the ideas and aims of a political movement, namely feminism.¹³

But the term has long been contested. In 1968, Canadian historian Shirley Gruner, examining its usage in France in the 1830s, declared, "The word `bourgeoisie' has never had the good fortune to be defined in any strict sense." It was associated with several social theories, including Saint-Simonianism and Marxism, of course. Definitions at that time ranged from "a small capitalist elite" to "the immense majority of the population." It was used confusingly by Fourierists "both to mean the mass of small craftsmen and artisans and to mean the neo-feudal capitalists." Gruner wondered if it had any further usefulness. Two decades later, studying the "bourgeois experience" in nineteenth-century Europe, Peter Gay found "a Babel of definitions." He points out that it could refer to the vast majority who were neither nobility nor peasants, but also that in mid-century, "Parisian proletarians used bourgeoise to designate respectable, sober working-class housewives whose husbands were afraid of them." Penned by writers such as Gustave Flaubert, Arthur Schnitzler, and Émile Zola, the word became an insult. Flaubert, who named himself "bourgeoisophobus," told George Sand, "Axiom: Hatred of Bourgeois is the beginning of all virtue."¹⁴

More recently, Sarah Maza has ascribed the French bourgeoisie to a "social imaginary." After its prerevolutionary use as a legal category disappeared, she states, the "bourgeoisie" became a negative, a way to describe "what someone else was." It carried a taint inherited from the old regime, implying both "unearned privilege and cultural deficiency."¹⁵ Bourgeoisophobia persisted; generations later, some leftist students even initially "dismissed the civil rights movement as `bourgeois'; ... since the blacks sitting in at Woolworth lunch counters were college students, it meant that they were middle class and not the workers or sharecroppers of revolutionary prediction."¹⁶

Today it appears that Zetkin's position rested less on any clear socioeconomic distinction among women than on ideology, political strategies, and perhaps personal rivalries.¹⁷ It also depended, as Eley importantly points out, on relationships among labor, socialist, and liberal parties that, in each national context, set the parameters within which women could act.¹⁸ While many profound differences marked the lives of working-class and leisured women, Zetkin's stance ignores the extent to which many members of the reviled bourgeois class stood closer in social background and political outlook to the socialists themselves than to the "parasites." Her position reflected the socialist leaders' fears of diverting attention away from class struggle and of alienating the artisanal core of their working-class support, who for the most part held traditional views about women.¹⁹ Zetkin adamantly refused all invitations to collaborate; in one notable incident in 1895, she even engaged in a published dispute with her socialist colleagues after declining to serve on a proposed cross-class commission—a "mishmash commission," she said—to study working conditions for women factory workers, a project they thought she should support.²⁰

In her efforts to uphold her vision of class struggle and to avoid cross-class collaboration, Zetkin moved away from Bebel and his criticism of the limits imposed on women by motherhood, domesticity, and traditional gender roles. As the primary voice on women's issues of German Social Democracy (the SPD), Europe's largest and dominant socialist party; as founder and leader of the socialist women's international; and as longtime editor (1891 to 1917) of the socialist women's journal, Zetkin had broad and profound influence. Following her lead, working-class leaders everywhere were "haunted," in Quataert's view, by concern lest "their" women "be intimidated by their bourgeois sisters to pursue purely feminist goals." They strove incessantly to repudiate those who sought to breach the class divide.²¹ Zetkin's ideas recur in the works of well-known socialist women in several other countries, notably Eleanor Marx in England, Alexandra Kollontai in Russia, and Louise Saumoneau in France—the latter two of whom became Zetkin's devoted younger followers, and each of whom exerted significant influence in her own country. All agreed on the importance, in Eleanor Marx's words, of "organis[ing] not as `women' but as proletarians; not as female rivals of our working men but as their comrades in struggle." (Still, less separatist than the others, Marx proposed that "where the bourgeois women demand rights that are of help to us, we will fight together with them."²²)

Kollontai's major contribution to the theory of "bourgeois feminism," a lengthy 1908 "antifeminist polemic," was written expressly to undermine potential class collaboration. Under her influence, socialist women attacked women suffragists aggressively, appearing at feminist meetings to harass speakers and disrupt proceedings. Although her personal history contradicted her words, the nobly born Kollontai exaggerated the feminists' "selfish class character." She wrote, "Between the emancipated woman of the intelligentsia and the toiling woman with calloused hands, there was such an unbridgeable gulf, that there could be no question of any sort of point of agreement between them." One biographer describes Kollontai as the "scourge of the bourgeois feminists."²³ Ironically, she developed one of the most radical critiques of women's roles in family and sexuality of her era, for which she was criticized by Lenin and rejected by many others.²⁴

In France, the first published call to establish a separate female constituency for Marxist socialism appeared in 1899. It initially expressed ambivalence toward feminism. The conveners, who termed themselves "socialist feminists," acknowledged the "legitimacy of [feminist] claims, regarding them as reforms whose realization would improve the situation of women," and declaring, "we will defend them as such." This appeal reappeared without change for at least five years, but its authors, who included Saumoneau, soon dropped the f-word and increasingly emulated Zetkin's strident opposition to "bourgeois feminism." Aiming "to tear socialist and proletarian women away from feminist confusionism," Saumoneau "adhered to the letter" of Zetkin's caution against cross-class cooperation.²⁵ Like her mentor, she attacked her opponents' character, describing them as "naïfive, deranged and hysterical." Historian Charles Sowerwine states that "Saumoneau not only broke with the feminist movement, but also prevented the socialist women's movement from putting any emphasis on the struggle for equality between the sexes and even from taking into account the problems of women in recruiting them to the party. Women would come into the socialist party as citizens, like the men, or they would not come at all." In France, even after World War I, "socialist women simply continued to repeat Saumoneau's arguments," says Paul Smith. "Saumonisme" prevailed, says Christine Bard, referring to 1936, when, with a socialist government in power, socialist women opted not to press for the right to vote. Saumoneau "continued as a destructive power behind the scenes," says Helmut Gruber, ensuring that female participation was limited to those few willing to join the overwhelmingly male party and brave the inhospitable masculine ambience of local meetings.²⁶

A fourth socialist woman of this era who strongly voiced similar suspicion of nonsocialist feminists was the Dutch leader Henriëtte Roland Holst-Van der Schalk. In 1898, when Dutch feminists organized a national exhibition on women's work, Roland Holst urged working-class women to boycott it, publishing a pamphlet in protest.²⁷ In hostile language that vied with Zetkin's invective, Roland Holst called the exhibition leaders "hypocritical, fork-tongued, cowardly ... middle-class feminists." At a preliminary meeting called to inform working women of exhibition plans, she expressed "great anger, the speaker stamping her feet and her eyes `ablaze with hatred and scorn,' while she shouted insults at the president herself."²⁸

How much influence these socialist women had outside leadership circles and beyond major cities is uncertain.²⁹ What is clear is that, while maintaining many different positions on other issues, most other socialist parties adopted the Second International's and the SPD's party line of anathematizing "bourgeois feminism."³⁰ Some leaders, despite personal ambivalence, divorced themselves from nonsocialist feminist groups, although few expressed opposition in such vituperative language as Zetkin, Kollontai, Saumoneau, and Roland Holst.³¹ In fact, many socialist women distinguished between formal, organizational collaboration and cooperation among individuals. This point was recognized in 1900 at the first conference of German socialist women, where it was agreed to leave it to individuals to decide whether to "occasionally or temporarily work alongside `women's righters' and other bourgeois elements." In many cases, especially at the local level, they did collaborate.³² The "clean break" policy advocated by Zetkin, and reinforced by the socialist leadership, however, forced many left-leaning women to choose. A Dutch internationalist lamented in 1911 that "the SD [Social Democratic] women refuse to take a leaflet from the hands of a woman with the badge of the suffragists, although it is an appeal written by Bebel ... himself."³³

Rivalry over organizational power and resources played a major role in shaping the conflict. Socialist parties had access to substantial resources unavailable to women's groups. Lily Braun, who vied with Zetkin for leadership in Germany, noted that working-class women's opportunity to ally with a large, powerful party meant that "proletarian women ... had the potential of being politically effective; bourgeois women did not." When a new socialist women's group was formed in Paris in 1913, Pelletier predicted sarcastically that "it will leave feminism behind to please the men in the party." An Austrian socialist, describing her colleagues, noted, "Beginners in the class struggle, they were anxious to maintain their prestige vis-à-vis their male comrades."³⁴ Criticism by socialist women of "bourgeois feminism" was at the least a shrewd strategy.

The socialists' ardent castigation of "bourgeois feminism" persisted through the interwar period, despite male socialists' participation in so-called bourgeois governments during the Popular Front of the 1930s. It was most influential where socialist parties adhered closely to the principles and politics of the Second International, less so, for example, in Great Britain. It appeared as far away from its origins as China in the 1920s and Vietnam in the 1930s.³⁵ It was, of course, affected by the rise of welfare states, with support from nonsocialists and socialists alike, and by changing communist policies. "Feminism," however, had come to signify "bourgeois feminism." The legacy of class division persisted, so that, as Mineke Bosch comments about the Dutch women's movement, when feminism reemerged in the 1970s, conflicts between a "bourgeois" women's movement and a "proletarian" movement were taken entirely for granted by activists.³⁶ They soon made their way into the academy as well.

After World War II, claims for women's rights on the left reemerged with the founding by French communists in 1945 of the Women's International Democratic Federation, to pursue the fight against fascism and to represent working-class women. Caught up in Cold War politics, the WIDF, Leila Rupp states, "continued the well-worn socialist tradition of hostility to the bourgeois women's movement," contending with older international women's organizations for representation at the United Nations.³⁷ A short collection of excerpts from writings by Marx, Engels, Lenin, and Stalin, published in 1951 as The Woman Question, offered as an appendix a selection by Zetkin from her famous 1920 interview with Lenin, including Lenin's counsel to "draw a clear and ineradicable line of distinction between our policy and [bourgeois] feminism." Reprinted in 1970, this publication appeared that year on the reading list for the first course in women's history taught in the first women's studies program in the United States.³⁸

By the time that feminism reappeared as a highly visible movement, many of its demands had been achieved in the countries where "first wave" feminists had been most active. Believing, mistakenly, that their predecessors had limited their quest to the vote, some "second wave" feminists distinguished between what they called "equal rights feminism" and "women's liberation." Their new demands included elimination of many restrictions on women's lives that they associated with "bourgeois" society, including "bourgeois morality" and sexual repression. Given the experience of many new leaders in New Left movements, it is no surprise that dichotomous thinking about the relationship between feminism and socialism reemerged, along with criticism of the "bourgeois character" of the woman suffrage movement by activist author Kate Millett and others. The "bourgeois feminist movement" of the suffragists constituted a "trap," wrote Robin Morgan in the emblematic text of 1970, Sisterhood Is Powerful.³⁹

Class issues infused the politics of women's liberation from its beginnings. Many activists perceived capitalism as an obstacle to the equality of women as well as of the working classes. In Britain, the women's liberation journal Red Rag, in its inaugural issue of 1972, announced its support for "revolutionary change in society, for ending capitalism and establishing socialism." In France, where anti-bourgeois sentiment was particularly strong and feminism subject to "aggressive" ridicule, feminists of the 1970s were, in historian Florence Rochefort's words, "profoundly anchored in the new left and the extreme left."⁴⁰ By linking feminism to socialism, activists could show their recognition that women's liberation intended far more than relieving Betty Friedan's unhappy housewives of "the problem that has no name."⁴¹

Two of the earliest and most influential activist-scholars, Juliet Mitchell and Sheila Rowbotham, emerged from leftist groups in England, where the new feminism was closely related to the labor movement. The new women's movement on the left is sometimes dated from the appearance in 1966 of Mitchell's article "The Longest Revolution" in the New Left Review, which reminded readers of the Marxian legacy and the socialist failure to solve the problem of women's subordination. What held women back, in Mitchell's analysis, was the "traditional," that is to say, the "bourgeois" family. But Mitchell also cautioned against too early a class division among the new feminists. "Perhaps in the future, the biggest single theoretical battle will have to be that between liberationists with a socialist analysis, and feminists with a `radical feminist' analysis. But that future has come too soon. The conflict is premature because neither group has yet developed a `theory.' The practice which is that theory's condition of production has only just begun." Mitchell avoided using the term "bourgeois feminism," preferring instead to identify feminists who believed that equality could be won without a socialist revolution as "liberal."⁴²

Sheila Rowbotham, a "worker student" in history whose pioneering 1972 book, Women, Resistance, and Revolution, linked women to the cause of socialist revolution, employed the term "bourgeois feminist" only in the final sentence of her introductory chapter. But she intended it in no derogatory sense, simply as an attribute of women who had very early challenged the status quo in women's roles. She also offered a revisionist reading of socialist policy, arguing that feminist "changes will not follow a socialist revolution automatically but will have to be made explicit in a distinct movement now, as a precondition of revolution, not as its aftermath."⁴³

Writing retrospectively, Rowbotham noted the extent to which leftist movements of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries had caricatured feminists and made feminism into a "dreaded bogey." These "over-simplified caricatures of `bourgeois feminism' which concertina-ed several kinds of feminism into one grotesque creature ... have been taken too much at face value by socialist women writing history." She herself had failed, she said, to problematize the relationship between socialism and feminism sufficiently, or to challenge an "uncritical acceptance of a simple polarity between socialism and feminism." "It was not," she wrote in a subsequent book, "a simple question of reactionary middle-class feminists versus enlightened working-class socialists."⁴⁴

The new women's history was strongly influenced by developments in labor history. Both Mitchell and Rowbotham had studied with E. P. Thompson, the famous British activist-scholar who helped to bring about new perspectives on working-class and socialist history.⁴⁵ But by neglecting women in his classic work The Making of the English Working Class (1963), he sensitized female activist-scholars to the "cult of masculinity" greatly admired by the left. In a perceptive account of Thompson's influence and the difficulties arising from it, titled What's Left?, Julia Swindells and Lisa Jardine state the problem: "What is admissible within the Thompson enterprise of retrieving working-class consciousness as a `suitable' topic for historians is going to be a problem for subsequent radical history, particularly when social history belatedly remembers the women. The `value' of working-class men's experience is authorized by culture, and in that account the women provide the `virtue' via the family. But in that case, the women will always appear in the account as bourgeois."⁴⁶

Similar problems arose in radical movements in North America, France, Germany, Italy, and elsewhere. As women turned "personal" into "political" issues in the politics of 1960s radical movements, they often found themselves shoved aside and belittled. "We are trashed as bourgeois feminists irrespective of the political position we take," commented Dorothy E. Smith, a Canadian Marxist feminist activist-scholar. "If you are working-class they'll humiliate you with your sex and class ignorances, if you're middle-class they'll call you a petty bourgeois deviationist," complained Rowbotham.⁴⁷ This rejection of leftist women's perspectives contributed substantially to shaping the new women's movement, in which women on the left played a formative role.

Two developments of the 1970s brought increased prominence to the assumption of a deep class division among activist women, in which use of the word "bourgeois" to castigate nonsocialist feminists continued. One was a self-identified socialist feminist movement whose adherents began a search for new theory to remedy flaws in the work inherited from nineteenth-century socialists.⁴⁸ The second movement, also heavily influenced by nineteenth-century socialist thought, was the academic field of women's studies. The terminology and the legacy of disdain for "bourgeois feminism" appear often in the literature of both movements.

Socialist feminists drew on Engels to legitimize women's claims; some cited Mitchell; most assumed a socialist revolution essential to women's liberation. While factional politics split women's movements, numerous theorists tried to integrate socialism and feminism by developing materialist explanations that, unlike Marxism, included human reproduction and linked the systems of "patriarchy" that governed family life with relations of production. Others inveighed against "bourgeois feminism." "Today we polemicize with `bourgeois' and `petty-bourgeois' feminists," said Mary-Alice Waters in 1972. "Many of us are dissatisfied with a strict bourgeois feminism," wrote Charnie Guettel in 1974. "Bourgeois and proletarian women confront each other in the labor market, and bourgeois women are one of the instruments used to undercut the wages of proletarian women ... today [just as] in Clara Zetkin's day," wrote Marlene Dixon in 1977. Like their predecessors in the Second International, these women assured their male colleagues of their commitment to socialist revolution and of their rejection of nonsocialist feminisms.⁴⁹

Aiming to reduce the conflict, theorist Lise Vogel noted that Zetkin, in an 1896 speech, did not propose a simple dichotomy but divided women into groups, separating out the "ruling-class women of the Upper Ten Thousand" from the lower and middle bourgeoisie who constituted the core of the bourgeois women's movement, and whose demands she then considered "entirely justified." In Vogel's view, Zetkin's later intransigent opposition to nonsocialist women reflected her resistance to reformism within the socialist movement as well as her pragmatic politics. ("Most revisionists and at least some reformists in the SPD were, in fact, closely allied to bourgeois feminism," as they more generally favored collaboration with liberals, states Richard J. Evans.⁵⁰)

During the later 1970s and the 1980s, as feminism faded from the public eye, it reappeared in rapidly spreading women's studies programs, where, from the beginning, the influence of socialist thought was strong.⁵¹ Academic feminism drew heavily on the literature that informed the radical movements of the 1960s and early 1970s. Whatever the course discipline, many reading lists included works in which students encountered discussion of socialism's relationship to feminism. Engels's Origin of the Family appeared on many of the first syllabi in women's studies, along with Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex (1952) and Kate Millett's Sexual Politics (1970), both of which rely on Engels. Essays by socialists Margaret Benston, Marlene Dixon, and Roxanne Dunbar that linked women's liberation to socialist revolution appeared repeatedly.⁵² The first women's studies textbooks, which generally included some effort to explain the origins of women's "oppression" and concomitant proposed solutions, tended to define women's movements using oversimplified terms. As Michèle Barrett and Anne Phillips write, "1970s feminism assumed one could specify a cause of women's oppression ... [one that] lay at the level of social structure ... In the taxonomies so beloved of the period—as of many commentators subsequently—feminisms were divided into their liberal, socialist, and radical varieties." The notion of "bourgeois feminism" (sometimes identified as "liberal feminism") found a place alongside socialist feminism and radical feminism as one of the "Big Three" frequently cited by historians and feminist theorists.⁵³

Not only did this practice confuse class origins and class outlook, it defied the reality that feminism's constituency persisted in cutting across alleged class borders. It obscured the fact that feminism also transcended racial lines. Even though, as Zillah Eisenstein points out, "The `bourgeois' woman has not really been identified yet in terms of a class analysis specifically pertaining to women," she was readily targeted for dismissal. The founders of the women's studies program at San Diego State chastised themselves and others associated with the university for their "petit bourgeois" biases. In 1974, when the African American Combahee River Collective, identifying its politics as socialist, published the first book on "black women's studies," it rejected support for a leading black feminist group, the National Black Feminist Organization, for its "bourgeois-feminist stance." Introducing a reprint of Clara Zetkin's work in 1984, activist Angela Davis opined that "bourgeois feminists today ... have a great deal to learn from Zetkin's analysis."⁵⁴

Historians, meanwhile, set out to recover the heritage of socialist women and feminist socialists. As a research topic, the relationship between feminism and socialism offered several attractions. It provided entrée for young historians into the popular subfield then dubbed the "new social history." It offered attractively untrodden ground, including virtually untouched archival materials. It also offered a chance to contribute to the wider movement for social change. History, at least on the left, seemed to allow for "making a statement." Perhaps it also offered what Virginia Woolf described as "the glamour of the working class and the emotional relief afforded by adopting its cause."⁵⁵ No one snickered at the idea of working-class history, and, of course, no one wanted to be "bourgeois."⁵⁶ Like earlier feminists who applauded the socialists for their stance on women's rights, the new historians of women also appreciated the recognition that socialist parties had afforded women's causes—"the first in all countries," as the secretary-general of the National Council of French Women, Mme. Avril de Sainte-Croix, declared in 1907.⁵⁷

At that time, however, one could read basic texts about socialism without encountering a single reference to women.⁵⁸ The focus was on ideology and organizations, political parties and trade associations, strikes and protest marches; the rhetoric was dominated by the language of class, and the working class was embodied in the artisan, factory hand, or miner, its "quintessential worker" clearly male.⁵⁹ Sources included organizational records, proceedings of party congresses, party platforms, personal papers of party leaders, and periodical publications supported by party funds. Labor history told of men and organizations. As Beatrix Campbell wrote (of Britain), "The socialist movement ... [was] swept off its feet by the magic of masculinity, muscle and machinery," and its historians failed to challenge this perception.⁶⁰

Despite New Left influences, the initial challenge to consensus history did not extend to women's interests. French labor historian Michelle Perrot, who became one of the founders of French women's history, tells a revealing story of resistance by Trotskyist, Maoist, and other radical students. In 1973, when sociologist Andrée Michel introduced analysis of the family into the first women's history course in France, she "was reproached ... They said they did not want to hear about family models; the family was bourgeois."⁶¹ The historiography also reflects the long dominance in the academy of structuralism. In this heyday of the "longue durée," not only was biography all but banished from the historical profession, it was doubly suspect on grounds of elitism. The term "women worthies" took on a pejorative cast, while women workers and women on the left attracted disproportionate scholarly interest.⁶²

Rowbotham introduced her readers to Anna Doyle Wheeler, Flora Tristan, Eleanor Marx, Alexandra Kollontai, Angelica Balabanoff, Emma Goldman, and many other socialist women.⁶³ Werner Thönnessen's 1969 study (which appeared in English in 1973) of the SPD's stance toward women brought prominence to Clara Zetkin and her German party. Thönnessen charged "the [bourgeois] women's movement ... [with its] problem-ridden aim of legal equality" with responsibility for society's ability to "liquidate the proletarian women's movement." He credits "bourgeois feminism," along with "proletarian anti-feminism" and the SPD's turn to reformism ("revisionism"), for having "banished women's liberation once and for all into the realm of utopia."⁶⁴ Another pioneer of German women's history, Amy Hackett, quoting Zetkin's view of sisterhood as "sentimental simpering about harmony," wrote in 1972 that "the deepest split in German feminism was between Social Democratic and bourgeois women."⁶⁵

Although France occupied a much lesser place in the story, as the nation whose history had long attracted more Anglophone historians than any other non-English-speaking country, it also gained considerable notice in the 1970s. Russia's revolutionary history and the prominence of its radical women likewise drew attention to links between socialism and feminism. Between 1975 and 1979, several unpublished dissertations and at least seven monographs and collections of essays appeared in English, focusing on socialist women and highlighting the division between "bourgeois feminism" and "socialist feminism."⁶⁶ Generalizations based on three national histories, featuring Zetkin, Saumoneau, and Kollontai, soon found their way into women's history and women's studies courses, and greatly affected interpretations and evaluations of women's movements.

Important works of this period include Berenice Carroll's 1976 anthology, offering two chapters on socialism and feminism, one on Engels (and Marx) and another on the "bourgeois" women's movement in Germany and its association with liberalism.⁶⁷ The same year, The Socialist Register published an aptly titled article, "Marxist Women versus Bourgeois Feminism," that included in translation important primary sources by Bebel (including his reference to "the enemy sisters") and Zetkin as well as Rosa Luxemburg, and also brought Eleanor Marx into the "war" fought by German Marxist women "to counteract the influence of bourgeois feminism."⁶⁸ That year also, Richard J. Evans published the first of a series of works through which he helped to establish Germany as the paradigmatic case of socialist relations with feminism. Taking as a starting date 1894, the year that marked the formation of a national federation of German women's organizations and their (contested) vote to exclude socialist women's groups (though not working women), Evans called attention to the class antagonism that made alliance "impossible," despite what he calls their "wide agreement of aims."⁶⁹

Studying the socialist-feminist connection in France, Sowerwine in 1978 also pointed to signal events in the early years of the two movements. During a struggle for dominance among socialist factions at a formative meeting of the French Workers' Party (POF) in 1880, feminist leader Hubertine Auclert and her group chose to support a Proudhonist-influenced group that envisioned only traditional roles for women, over their Marxist-oriented, and theoretically more feminist, rivals. Sowerwine attributes the choice to the power of private property over feminist claims in their scale of values (and generalizes from it to "bourgeois feminists"). Other possible readings of this event (including my own) suggest alternative explanations, including personal rivalries and loyalties as well as the differing definitions of socialism and feminism that divided factional leaders and their followers. Auclert's biographer points out, importantly, that even before the contentious meeting, the collectivist group had already rejected allying with the advocates of women's rights.⁷⁰

A second event that affected relations between socialist and feminist women occurred during the International Congress on the Condition and Rights of Women in Paris in 1900. In a debate over the scope of proposed labor legislation, a dispute arose over whether to include domestic servants, as socialist participants advocated. The controversy itself, while brief, led to an extended, bitter, and highly personalized argument between two founders of the newly formed "socialist feminist" group and a nonsocialist leader of the conference, and it supposedly soured relations between women's groups permanently. Following Sowerwine, Robert Stuart, a historian of the POF, views the "notorious" conflict as "emblematic of the irreconcilable class conflict dividing militant French women."⁷¹ But a rereading of the conference proceedings raises the question of whether this confrontation outweighs an important proposal, termed "minor" by Sowerwine, by the "bourgeois" journalist and conference convener Marguerite Durand. This plan called for minimum piecework rates, female labor inspectors, and extension of labor legislation to domestic workers and commercial employees (categories that included the vast majority of women workers). Without denying that some feminists did oppose socialism, this history could also be written to highlight the efforts of "bourgeois" women to improve conditions for working-class women.⁷²

"Bourgeois" women, for example, were not always dismissive of domestic servants. Just two years earlier, at the summer-long exposition on women's work organized by Dutch "bourgeois" women at the Hague, servants were offered free entrance and were included as speakers in an extensive, embedded conference on domestic service. Lily Braun, cast out of German Social Democracy as too "bourgeois," suggested that a domestic servants' union be organized, and called on servants "to strike against the semi-feudal relationship under which they work." In 1899, when she formally proposed the inclusion of female servants in labor legislation under consideration at the Reichstag, "her party comrades discouraged her, arguing that maids were not genuine proletarians." Braun's efforts on behalf of household workers elicited the charge that she was "deflecting the working class from its struggle for power." In Russia, following the Revolution of 1905, feminists organized a union for domestic workers; they also encouraged peasant women to claim access to land and voting rights, and drew many working women into their suffrage efforts.⁷³

These complexities notwithstanding, in 1978, when Jean Quataert and I published a collection of essays about socialist women in five European countries, we inadvertently contributed to the revival of class-based categorical thinking about feminism. In our introduction, we defined the terms "socialist feminism" and "bourgeois feminism" primarily in terms of ideological heritages. Although we described many of the socialists as artisans or employees of small shops, even as intellectuals, rather than as prototypical "proletarian" factory workers, and noted that the feminists labeled "bourgeois" included teachers and white-collar workers as well as leisured women, we did not delve further into class identity. Nor did we criticize the solidly "bourgeois" (if not upper-class) origins of most of the socialist leaders. We tended to categorize our subjects just as the socialists of that era had done.⁷⁴

The unexamined definition of "bourgeois feminism" and the alleged gulf that lay between its adherents and the socialists found their way into women's history also through textbooks. The first and for a decade the only text designed specifically for survey courses in European women's history, Becoming Visible (1977), offered chapters on modern France, England, Russia, Germany, and Spain, all with a leftist slant; and in its second and third editions (1987, 1998) it included a selection by Sowerwine on socialism and feminism that passed along the unexamined use of "bourgeois feminism." While admirably summarizing the origins and significance of the socialist response to socioeconomic changes wrought in working-class women's lives, this chapter also exaggerated the depth of the division between women's groups, as well as the success of socialist parties in attracting women workers.⁷⁵

What, for instance, if the nonsocialists had been described by historians not as "bourgeois" but as "liberal" feminists or "suffrage" feminists; or, following German and Russian usage, as "equal rights feminists"; or, for the French case, as Karen Offen did some years ago and Carolyn Eichner and Florence Rochefort have done more recently, as "republican feminists"? Gisela Bock points to some feminists who avoided the ambivalent word "bourgeois," which in German refers to citizenship as well as class status, by referring to the "civic women's movement." Jean Quataert now prefers "reform feminist" to her earlier usage. For socialists and some historians of the 1960s and 1970s, however, to borrow from Rochefort, "the [feminist] movement was just as pejoratively `bourgeois' as it had been for their predecessors near the end of the nineteenth century."⁷⁶

For the generation of activist-historians who began professional careers in the early 1970s, the emphasis on socialist women leaders and their opposition to "bourgeois feminism" served a political purpose. Claire Moses observes that these "constructions" of women's history allowed the new feminists "to stake out a position more radical than that of [their] grandmothers ... [and their] mothers." "We therefore reclaimed the Socialist women for feminism, denying their self-naming," she adds.⁷⁷ "The dichotomies—Women and Labour, Sex and Class, Feminism and Socialism have been the intimate inhabitants of both my psyche and my intellectual work (if the two can be separated)," Sally Alexander recalls.⁷⁸

It seems curious now that, given the influence of E. P. Thompson, more studies of socialism and feminism in the 1970s did not emphasize the impact of culture on the formation of consciousness for socialist and feminist activists in the earlier period. By the mid-1980s, however, following Joan Scott's influential challenge to apply gender analysis to historical studies and the flowering of cultural studies, new perspectives on individual identity and class consciousness began to dissolve old dichotomies. Where the 1982 English edition of Sowerwine's book bears the title Sisters or Citizens?, Evans's 1987 study of feminism, socialism, and pacifism in Europe features inclusion in its title, Comrades and Sisters. In this work, Evans notes that the doctrine of a sharp separation between working women and "bourgeois feminists" promulgated by Zetkin, Saumoneau, and Kollontai was "by no means an inevitable extrapolation of the fundamentals of Marxism."⁷⁹

Evans's point reappears with emphasis in a biography of Bebel that appeared in 2000. Examining Zetkin's ascendancy over Bebel in shaping Marxist thought on collaboration with nonsocialist women, Anne Lopes and Gary Roth note, "Until Zetkin, no one had implied [that to `cross class'] was unmarxist. The marxian legacy, as it has come to be known in the subsequent historiography, is largely a fiction created by Zetkin herself ... The social democratic outlook already included the gamut of bourgeois feminist interests and mostly did so with greater consistency and fervor." In the eyes of these authors, historians who deemphasized Bebel's feminism "merged the history and the historiography."⁸⁰

In fact, there was a long history of efforts to link socialism and feminism. In the pre-Marxist era in France, the definition of the "feminine" that shaped romantic socialist conceptions encompassed all women. From the Saint-Simoniennes of the 1830s, through the revolutionaries of 1848 and the Communardes of 1871, "proletarian" women collaborated with "bourgeois" women. Many women identified as "bourgeois feminists" considered themselves socialist and participated in socialist organizations.⁸¹ Some socialist women, even in Zetkin's own party, rejected her policy of absolute noncooperation. Some working-class women joined "bourgeois" groups, and many in the latter ranks worked to improve working-class women's employment skills and educational opportunities. Indeed, in many instances, nonsocialist feminism grew out of women's work to aid impoverished and abused women.⁸² Common goals, such as winning the vote, opposing militarism, or resolving the "motherhood dilemma," sometimes elicited collaboration, sometimes "parallel wars."⁸³ Even the alleged "litmus test" of class loyalty, protective legislation, on close examination by historians from nine European countries as well as Australia and the United States, turns out to be anything but. Trade union women, fearing loss of employment, often opposed it, and division appeared in socialist and nonsocialist women's groups alike. Rather than a clear-cut struggle between "bourgeois feminists" and defenders of women workers, positions on restricting female labor ran the gamut among adherents of all political persuasions.⁸⁴

Largely since the 1990s, new historical scholarship has emerged from Northern and Eastern Europe and far beyond that shows the global purchase of the concept "bourgeois feminism," while also blurring the dichotomous lines it suggests.⁸⁵ In Denmark and Sweden, where socialists collaborated with liberals to achieve democratic parliamentary institutions, barriers between "bourgeois" and socialist women's groups were often breached.⁸⁶ In Ukraine, the Galician leader Natalia Ozarkevych Kobrynska, portrayed by Martha Bohachevsky-Chomiak, argued explicitly against Zetkin, advocating linkages between the two social movements and rejecting the socialist denigration of feminism as "bourgeois."⁸⁷ In Hungary, where in the early twentieth century socialists "nervously guard[ed] their charges against any `bourgeois influence,'" Judith Szapor notes that some socialists nevertheless formed alliances with "bourgeois" feminists to campaign for the vote, and even tried to put into practice Lily Braun's proposals to resolve domestic servants' problems by creating communal households. Although Hungarian feminism later became what Andrea Petö terms "an isolated stream," echoes of an antifeminist heritage persisted in post-1989 Hungary. "Feminists were considered aliens by conservative Christians, and bourgeois by the labor movement."⁸⁸ In Bulgaria, according to Krassimira Daskalova, ideological divisions over class collaboration split the socialists in 1903 and left "feminism" stigmatized as "bourgeois," while also stereotyped as opposing "'traditional Bulgarian values' of love, marriage, and family."⁸⁹ In Poland, states Jill Bystydzienski, "State propaganda successfully managed to belittle the feminist cause and to plant almost unanimous disdain for western feminism presenting it as a bourgeois preoccupation of well-to-do, disaffected, mainly American women." Any emerging feminism today must define itself as neither "Western" nor communist.⁹⁰

Disdain for feminism reached Asia as well. In China, Bebel was translated in the early 1920s, and the Chinese Communist Party adopted the advancement of women as a basic tenet. But despite party work undertaken to improve the condition of women, Chinese leaders found it useful to denigrate "feminism"; the word itself, as Wang Zheng shows, became a negative term, usually accompanied by the adjective "bourgeois" and often qualified as well by "Western."⁹¹ Kumari Jayawardena writes that when feminism arose in South Asia in the 1970s, "The Left brought out the old quotations on the Woman Question, while dismissing feminism as a dangerous Western import."⁹²

These examples serve to show that, as the editors of a 1989 collection of globally ranging essays on women and socialism state,

The enduring power of these early debates should be underlined. They have resonated through every socialist movement in the twentieth century without exception ... From China to Nicaragua, this nineteenth-century model has been consciously adopted, even when its appropriateness was, at the least, open to question. While other aspects of the Marxist-Leninist program ... have been adapted to national conditions, this element has remained remarkably unchanged, whether the country deploying the theory was Asian, Southeast Asian, African, European, or Latin American.⁹³

Phrases such as "capitulation to bourgeois feminism" and "knuckled under to bourgeois feminism" were commonly employed, and the term "bourgeois feminism" was used to label behavior deemed to favor "individualism" or to defy traditional strictures about female conduct.⁹⁴

The concept "bourgeois feminism" rested on reductionist constructions of class status and political interests that are a poor fit for the realities of women's lives. In an era when level of skill and control over production served to define male workers' identity, and in turn profoundly affected the ideology and language of class, women were assumed to have no work-derived identity. Instead, most women became "proletarian" or "bourgeois" on the basis of their relationships to men.⁹⁵ But, as Rochefort concludes, "The women designated by socialists as `bourgeoises' were for the most part situated well to the left on the political spectrum." In her view, the socialist attack on feminism in the Second International "did not bring about a major schism within the [French] feminist movement; for feminists it remained possible to have a twofold commitment."⁹⁶ Studies from postcommunist Eastern Europe also show that "many women ... seemingly identified as both feminists and socialists without much effort."⁹⁷

Class ascription also reflected a gendered double standard. While socialists adopted working-class identities for themselves and ignored the "bourgeois" class origins of men whose views they approved, they labeled women of similar background with the term of opprobrium. This practice did not go unnoticed. Maria Grever and Berteke Waaldijk cite a Dutch journalist who argued in 1898 that "the proletariat judged rich women more harshly than rich men, while capitalists victimized poor women more than poor men."⁹⁸ In 1907, French feminist Nelly Roussel said, "Two women of the opposite classes may have more common interests, more similar sources of revolt, consequently more terrain for entente than have a man and a woman belonging to the same milieu ... There are no `managerial classes' among us."⁹⁹ In her 1936 memoir, Jeanne Bouvier, a working-class Frenchwoman, also complained, recalling that "feminists are all treated as `bourgeoise,' but the husbands of these feminists, if they are members of a political or philosophical party of the left, are not `bourgeois.'" In contrast, as Christine Bard points out, "Economically, teachers, especially when single, belong to the working-class ... [But because] their educational level allowed them to participate in intellectual circles, voire `bourgeois,'" a designation they denied. Although historians and sociologists long ago recognized the nature and significance of the "new class" into which so many working women were drawn, these insights eluded most socialist leaders and early historians of socialist and feminist relationships.¹⁰⁰

Studies of the class backgrounds of socialist women and of nonsocialist feminists drawn from British, Bulgarian, Dutch, German, Spanish, and Swedish history of the early twentieth century suggest further confusion. Few socialist women worked for pay; they were socialists by sympathy but not "proletarian." Fewer performed labor that produced "surplus value." In Bulgaria, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, and Sweden, most were stay-at-home wives of socialist men. Many British feminists came from working-class origins, but typically worked in service occupations, especially as teachers. In the British suffrage movement, those who held dual commitments to labor movements and to feminism tended to be undercounted. In the Netherlands, few feminists were wealthy women.¹⁰¹ It is not clear that the class backgrounds of socialist women and feminists were "very different," as Sowerwine has alleged.¹⁰² Given a paucity of data, mixed reports, generational shifts, and national differences, as well as multiple varieties of socialism and of feminism, assertions about feminists' and women socialists' "class" backgrounds seem at best to be premature. In any case, Marxist class definitions and categories offer little insight.

Rhetoric masked the reality that party allegiance did not parallel class differences among women. As a political movement, feminism has never been "bourgeois" in the sense that Marxists proposed. "Bourgeois feminism" was invented by socialist women and did not exist as a discrete, identifiable, class-based women's movement. Nor was there as absolute a class divide between women's groups as socialist leaders and some of their historians asserted. This allegation allowed a strategic shift in socialist perspectives on the woman question to take place, from the more collaborative views of August Bebel and others to Clara Zetkin and her followers, who portrayed feminism as if it were the complaint of a special interest group. The socialists, says Quataert, "promoted their own gendered form of identity politics." As a political strategy for rejecting feminism, it helped socialists claim "proletarian" values for themselves, while it masked the motivations of its formulators and their failure to create a woman-centered socialism that might effectively attract women workers.¹⁰³

If the purpose, conscious or unconscious, of the enemies of "bourgeois feminism" was to squelch any potential for unity among women's movements, they succeeded, probably beyond what they could have imagined. The concept spread around the globe, and it persisted for a century as a means to discredit nonsocialist women activists. Feminism fell into a double bind. It was suspect as "bourgeois," but also came to be rejected, especially in formerly communist countries after 1989, for its association with socialism.¹⁰⁴ In the 1980s, as identity politics and the language of race and ethnicity replaced class as a central focus, "bourgeois" lost its place as the epithet of choice, but left behind a divisive residue. The dichotomizing concept also owes its long life to the scholars, myself included, who employed the term, and failed to challenge its validity. Today, however, received ideas and inherited dichotomies elicit criticism. Comparing nineteenth-century women's emancipation movements, the editors of a 2004 volume conclude, "There was more crossing of borders between feminism and socialism than the long-established image of the `hostile sisters' would lead us to suppose. Historiography has also exaggerated the rift between the two wings of the women's movement for political reasons."¹⁰⁵

Feminism is one of the most misunderstood movements of modern times, and historians have contributed to the misjudgment. The "most lasting legacy" of the socialist rejection of feminism as "bourgeois" was not, as Sowerwine asserted, "the development of separate organization for working-class women and a consequent articulation of their distinct concerns."¹⁰⁶ Whether the latter ever happened is debatable. What is certain, in my view, is that the most far-reaching legacy for women was the socialists' success in spreading disdain for feminism, on the ideological grounds that to be a practicing feminist was to be "bourgeois." The association between socialism and feminism was, as Karen Offen declares, "a lethal relationship ... From a feminist perspective, organized socialism in Europe—and more broadly, the social democratic left—has a lot to answer for."¹⁰⁷ Geoff Eley states, "Socialist parties' claims to be the vanguard of democracy, rallying all progressive causes to their banner, foundered on this gender neglect."¹⁰⁸ The socialist stance toward feminism hindered both movements in achieving mutually desired goals.¹⁰⁹

The history of the European Left's relationships with women and feminism is an important part of political history that needs reassessment. Historians today might begin by opening previously closed categories and replacing organizational approaches with thematic, women-centered frameworks.¹¹⁰ With a reconceptualized question that employs gender as a category of analysis and redefines politics to include sexual politics, identifies the many positive contributions of nonsocialist feminists to the lives of women workers, and examines such neglected topics as the impact on socialist politics of concepts of motherhood and the population question, understanding of historical relationships between socialist and feminist movements and their consequences for democratic movements and society would be clarified and enriched. This revision would recognize the importance of feminism's history to the history of the left and to modern history as a whole, with new appreciation for how categorical class thinking and political commitments affected both its history and historians.

An earlier version of this essay was presented at the conference of the International Federation for Research in Women's History during the 20th International Congress of Historical Sciences in Sydney in July 2005. I owe special gratitude to my longtime colleagues Karen Offen and Jean Quataert, and to Gisela Bock and Geoff Eley, for invaluable close readings and suggestions; to the editors and anonymous readers of the AHR for constructive criticism; and to Ann Taylor Allen, Naomi J. Andrews, Krassimira Daskalova, Carolyn Eichner, Joanne Ferraro, and Francisca de Haan for helpful comments.

Marilyn J. Boxer is Professor Emerita of History at San Francisco State University, where she also served as academic vice-president. Author of When Women Ask the Questions: Creating Women's Studies in America (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), she is co-author and co-editor with Jean H. Quataert of Connecting Spheres: European Women in a Globalizing World, 1500 to the Present, 2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, 2000), and Socialist Women: European Socialist Feminism in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Elsevier, 1978). Formerly an Affiliated Scholar at the Institute for Research on Women and Gender at Stanford University, where she co-directed with Karen Offen a seminar for college teachers on "Motherhood and the Nation-State," she is currently writing on motherhood and French socialism.

Notes

¹ For a portion of Zetkin's 1889 speech, translated by Susan G. Bell, see Susan Groag Bell and Karen M. Offen, eds., Women, the Family, and Freedom: The Debate in Documents, 2 vols. (Stanford, Calif., 1983), vol. 2: 1880–1950, 87–91, quotations on 87, 90; also in Zetkin, Clara Zetkin: Selected Writings, ed. Philip S. Foner (New York, 1984), 45–50. For 1896, see Rosalie Schoenflies, Lina Morgenstern, Minna Cauer, Jeannette Schwerin, and Marie Raschke, eds., Der Internationale Kongress für Frauenwerke und Frauenbestrebungen in Berlin, 19. bis 26. September 1896 (Berlin, 1897), 394–396, quotation on 394. At the latter conference, French feminist Eugénie Potonié-Pierre introduced the new word "feminism"; ibid., 40.

² For a recent reference to Zetkin and her 1907 speech, see Kristen Ghodsee, "Feminism-by-Design: Emerging Capitalisms, Cultural Feminism, and Women's Nongovernmental Organizations in Postsocialist Eastern Europe," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 29, no. 3 (Spring 2004): 727–753, quotations on 732, 733. For other examples of the persistence of this idea, see Francisca de Haan, Krassimira Daskalova, and Anna Loufti, eds., A Biographical Dictionary of Women's Movements and Feminisms in Central, Eastern, and South Eastern Europe, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Budapest, 2006). German historian Gisela Bock finds the term "bourgeois feminism" to be "as ubiquitous today" as in Zetkin's day; personal communication, May 2006.

³ John R. Hall, "The Reworking of Class Analysis," in Hall, ed., Reworking Class (Ithaca, N.Y., 1997), 1–37. For new approaches to labor history particularly salient to understanding women and class, see Lenard R. Berlanstein, ed., Rethinking Labor History: Essays on Discourse and Class Analysis (Urbana, Ill., 1993), esp. William H. Sewell, Jr., "Toward a Post-Materialist Rhetoric for Labor History," 15–38. Kathleen Canning observes that gender analysis has "revitalized" the field of labor history; Canning, Gender History in Practice: Historical Perspectives on Bodies, Class, and Citizenship (Ithaca, N.Y., 2006), 124. On class and gender formation, see Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (Chicago, 1987); and Geoffrey Crossick and Heinz-Gerhard Haupt, The Petite Bourgeoisie in Europe, 1780–1914: Enterprise, Family and Independence (London, 1995), 97–98; also Ava Baron, "Gender and Labor History: Learning from the Past, Looking to the Future," in Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991), 1–46. On "binary distinction," see Sonya O. Rose, "Class Formation and the Quintessential Worker," in Hall, Reworking Class, 133–166, esp. 139–144; and Rose, Limited Livelihoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth-Century England (Berkeley, Calif., 1992), 193. On excluding women from the "public sphere," see the summary in Laura L. Frader and Sonya O. Rose, "Introduction: Gender and the Reconstruction of European Working-Class History," in Frader and Rose, eds., Gender and Class in Modern Europe (Ithaca, N.Y., 1996), 11–19.

⁴ For a pioneering analysis of the invention of "bourgeois feminism," see Françoise Picq, "'Bourgeois Feminism' in France: A Theory Developed by Socialist Women before World War I," trans. Irene Tilton, in Judith Friedlander, Blanche Wiesen Cook, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, eds., Women in Culture and Politics: A Century of Change (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 330–343.

⁵ On the limitations of the European Left, and gender politics as its "greatest weakness," see Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000 (Oxford, 2002), quotation on 112.

⁶ On "false women's emancipation," see F. A. Sorge, Briefe und Auszüge aus Briefen von Joh. Phil. Becker, Jos. Dietzen, Friedrich Engels, Karl Marx an F. A. Sorge und Andere (Stuttgart, 1921), 37; for "milliner," see Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, vol. 1, trans. Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling (1867; repr., New York, 1902), 280–281; on "self-emancipation," see Marx, Letters to Dr. Kugelmann (New York, 1934), 82. Frederick Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884; repr., New York, 1942), 65–66; and Engels, The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844, trans. Florence Kelley Wischnewetsky (1845; repr., London, 1952), 181; on "asses," see Engels quoted by Hal Draper and Anne Lipow, "Marxist Women versus Bourgeois Feminism," Socialist Register 13 (1976): 179–226, quotation on 217.

⁷ August Bebel, Woman under Socialism, trans. from the German 33rd ed. by Daniel De Leon (New York, 1971), 5; originally published in 1883 as Woman in the Past, Present, and Future. Feindliche is sometimes translated as "enemy"; see Draper and Lipow, "Marxist Women versus Bourgeois Feminism," 189. On the broader significance of translations and Bebel's pioneering use of "gender-neutral" terms, see Anne Lopes and Gary Roth, "A Note on Translation," in Lopes and Roth, Men's Feminism: August Bebel and the German Socialist Movement (Amherst, N.Y., 2000), 19–27. On Otto-Peters, see Lopes and Roth, Men's Feminism, 90. On Bebel's support of feminist legislative reform, see Bebel, Woman under Socialism, 112; also Richard J. Evans, Comrades and Sisters: Feminism, Socialism, and Pacifism in Europe, 1870–1945 (Sussex, 1987), 28–29. For qualification of Bebel's feminism, see Richard Stites, The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, and Bolshevism, 1860–1930 (Princeton, N.J., 1978), 234–236. For Bebel's 1878 speech on "more in common," see Lopes and Roth, Men's Feminism, 199.

⁸ Ute Frevert, Women in German History: From Bourgeois Emancipation to Sexual Liberation (New York, 1989), 141.

⁹ Clara Zetkin, Zur Geschichte der proletarischen Frauenbewegung Deutschlands (1928; repr., Berlin, 1958), 209. On Zetkin's formulation of socialist theory on women, see Werner Thönnessen, The Emancipation of Women: The Rise and Decline of the Women's Movement in German Social Democracy, 1863–1933, trans. Joris de Bres (1969; repr., Frankfurt-am-Main, 1973), 39–46. For Zetkin's reference to women as slaves, see Robert Stuart, "Whores and Angels: Women and the Family in the Discourse of French Marxism, 1882–1905," European History Quarterly 27, no. 3 (1997): 339–369, quotation on 343–344.

¹⁰ On "clean break," see Alfred G. Meyer, The Feminism and Socialism of Lily Braun (Bloomington, Ind., 1985), 52. For "extreme animosity," see Stites, The Women's Liberation Movement, 237. For "stupid dreams," see Frauenrechtlerische Harmoniedüselei, the title of Zetkin's response to a new feminist journal; Die Gleichheit 5, no. 1 (January 9, 1895): 6. See also the citation by Alfred G. Meyer in Lily Braun, Selected Writings on Feminism and Socialism, trans. and ed. Alfred G. Meyer (Bloomington, Ind., 1987), 43. Meyer translates Zetkin's title as "Women's Libbers' Stupid Dreams about Harmony." For "muddle-headed," see Jean H. Quataert, "Unequal Partners in an Uneasy Alliance: Women and the Working Class in Imperial Germany," in Marilyn J. Boxer and Jean H. Quataert, eds., Socialist Women: European Socialist Feminism in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (New York, 1978), 112–145, quotation on 116. For "untiring," see Quataert, "Feminist Tactics in German Social Democracy 1890–1914: A Dilemma," IWK: Internationale Wissenschaftliche Korrespondenz zur Geschichte der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung 13, no. 1 (March 1977): 48–65, quotation on 56 n. 41. For Pelletier, see Richard J. Evans, The Feminists: Women's Emancipation Movements in Europe, America, and Australasia, 1840–1920 (London, 1977), 172. On "savage," see Richard J. Evans, "The Concept of Feminism: Notes for Practicing Historians," in Ruth-Ellen B. Joeres and Mary Jo Maynes, eds., German Women in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries: A Social and Literary History (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 247–258, quotation on 248. Evans here emphasizes the "depth of the divisions" between the socialist women's movement and feminism (253). For "vicious," see n. 17 below. A recent biographer sees the Lutheranism of Zetkin's early years as partially responsible for her ideological rigidity; see Tânia Puschernat, Clara Zetkin: Bürgerlichkeit und Marxismus: Eine Biographie (Essen, 2003).

¹¹ On bourgeois women's values, see Bonnie G. Smith, Ladies of the Leisure Class: The Bourgeoises of Northern France in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, N.J., 1981). Smith opens her book with the question, "What is a bourgeois woman?"; ibid., 3. On "heroes," see Michelle Perrot, "1914: Great Feminist Expectations," in Helmut Gruber and Pamela Graves, eds., Women and Socialism/Socialism and Women: Europe between the Two World Wars (New York, 1998), 27. For "parasites," see Rosa Luxemburg, "Women's Suffrage and Class Struggle," in Luxemburg, Selected Political Writings of Rosa Luxemburg, ed. Dick Howard (New York, 1971), 216–222, quotation on 220.

¹² Sarah Maza, The Myth of the French Bourgeoisie: An Essay on the Social Imaginary, 1750–1850 (Cambridge, Mass., 2003). "'So bourgeois' [fashion hawker] Hugh mutters after her. `So last year'"; observation at a New York City fashion show described in the New York Times, February 11, 2004, A26. On definitions of "bourgeois" in French dictionaries and popular usage, see Adeline Daumard, Les Bourgeois et la bourgeoisie en France depuis 1815 ([Paris], 1987), 35–44.

¹³ Madeleine Pelletier once remarked, "What the socialists reprove isn't feminism. It's the feminists"; Pelletier, "Bourgeois Feminism and Socialist Feminism," Le Socialiste, May 5, 1907.

¹⁴ Shirley Gruner, "The Revolution of July 1830 and the Expression `Bourgeoisie,'" Historical Journal 11, no. 3 (1968): 462–471, quotations on 469–471. Peter Gay, The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud, 5 vols., vol. 1: Education of the Senses (New York, 1984), 20; on writers and Flaubert as "bourgeoisophobus," see Gay, Schnitzler's Century: The Making of Middle-Class Culture, 1815–1914 (London, 2001), 29. The other amorphous term with which "bourgeois" is sometimes linked, "middle class," carries less affect. Jürgen Kocka, who in his study of nineteenth-century German society uses the latter's adjectival form "interchangeably with `bourgeois,'" points out that "the attractiveness of a concept rarely correlates with its precision ... The middle class has never been a class, at least not in the Marxist sense"; Kocka, Industrial Culture and Bourgeois Society: Business, Labor, and Bureaucracy in Modern Germany (New York, 1999), 231–233.

¹⁵ Maza, The Myth of the French Bourgeoisie, 3, 5, 195.

¹⁶ Eleanor Hakim, speaking of her cohort of graduate students at the University of Wisconsin; Hakim, "The Tragedy of Hans Gerth," in Paul Buhle, ed., History and the New Left: Madison, Wisconsin, 1950–1970 (Philadelphia, Pa., 1990), 252–263, quotation on 256.

¹⁷ Zetkin's adamant refusal to entertain collaboration with nonsocialist women and the rivalry for leadership are major themes of a study of feminism and German socialism that predates the resurgence of women's history. Its author sees Zetkin's "anti-feminism" as bordering on "fanaticism," and her presentations as "spirited, biting, and not infrequently vicious." See Jacqueline Strain, "Feminism and Political Radicalism in the German Social Democratic Movement, 1890–1914" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1964), 67, 81. For Zetkin's rivalry with Braun, see Jean H. Quataert, Reluctant Feminists in German Social Democracy, 1885–1917 (Princeton, N.J., 1979), 107–133; on differences with Luise Zietz and others, see ibid., 164–165, 202–205.

¹⁸ Thus the split was less strong in Britain than in Germany. See Eley, Forging Democracy, 30–31; and Geoff Eley, "German Liberals, the Well-Ordered Public, and the Patriarchal Nation, 1860–1920," paper presented at the conference "Wilhelmine Germany and Edwardian Britain—Cultural Contacts and Transfers," University of Oxford, March 2006. I thank Professor Eley for sharing this paper with me.

¹⁹ For example, when a group of Swedish socialist women submitted a proposed resolution for the international socialist women's conference in 1910, chastising socialist men who deserted women whose children they had fathered, Zetkin appealed to them to withdraw it; Renée Frangeur, "Social Democrats and the Woman Question in Sweden: A History of Contradiction," in Gruber and Graves, Women and Socialism/Socialism and Women, 425–426.

²⁰ On "mishmash commission," see Richard J. Evans, "Bourgeois Feminists and Women Socialists in Germany, 1894–1914: Lost Opportunity or Inevitable Conflict?" Women's Studies International Quarterly 3 (1980): 355–376, esp. 367–368.

²¹ For the controversy within German socialism over contraception, including strong statements against it by Clara Zetkin and Rosa Luxemburg, see R. P. Neuman, "Working Class Birth Control in Wilhelmine Germany," Comparative Studies in Society and History 20, no. 3 (1978): 408–428. On Zetkin's support for traditional gender roles, see Lopes and Roth, Men's Feminism, 200–201, and Karen Honeycutt, "Clara Zetkin: A Socialist Approach to the Problem of Woman's Oppression," Feminist Studies 3, no. 3/4 (Spring–Summer 1976): 131–144, esp. 135–136. For "haunted," see Quataert, Reluctant Feminists, 111.

²² Kollontai accompanied Zetkin on her 1909 visit to Britain; see Karen Hunt, Equivocal Feminists: The Social Democratic Federation and the Woman Question, 1884–1911 (Cambridge, 1996), 68 n. 55. On Zetkin as Kollontai's mentor, see also Beatrice Farnsworth, Aleksandra Kollontai: Socialism, Feminism, and the Bolshevik Revolution (Stanford, Calif., 1980), 26. For Eleanor Marx, see Draper and Lipow, "Marxist Women versus Bourgeois Feminism," 225–226; emphasis in original. But Marx saw "no more in common between [feminist leader] Mrs. Fawcett and a laundress than we see between Rothschild and one of his employees"; ibid., 225.

²³ Kollontai wrote The Social Bases of the Woman Question (1908) in preparation for the First All-Russian Women's Congress, and she held some fifty meetings with working women to coach them, before leading the group to the event "with clear instructions to disrupt it"; Farnsworth, Aleksandra Kollontai, 30–34, quotation on 33. For a detailed description of the 1908 congress, see Linda Harriet Edmondson, Feminism in Russia, 1900–1917 (London, 1984), 86–93. For "antifeminist polemic," see Stites, The Women's Liberation Movement, 437; on harassment, see ibid., 252; on "class character," see Richard Stites, "Women and the Revolutionary Process in Russia," in Renate Bridenthal, Susan Stuard, and Merry Wiesner-Hanks, eds., Becoming Visible: Women in European History, 3rd ed. (Boston, 1998), 424. Stites credits Kollontai with destroying the Russian Women's Union; Stites, The Women's Liberation Movement, 214. Kollontai wrote that "during the period of the first revolution ... the bourgeois women's movement posed a serious threat to the unity of a working-class movement"; in Alexandra Kollontai, Selected Writings, ed. Alix Holt (New York, 1977), 50. Her comment on "unbridgeable gulf" is quoted in Stites, The Women's Liberation Movement, 228. For "scourge," see Beatrice Farnsworth, "Bolshevism, the Woman Question, and Aleksandra Kollontai," in Boxer and Quataert, Socialist Women, 186.

²⁴ See Kollontai, Selected Writings.

²⁵ For the full text of the appeal and repeat notices, see Marilyn J. Boxer, "Socialism Faces Feminism in France, 1879–1913" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Riverside, 1975), 188, 191. "Confusionism" quoted in Boxer, "Socialism Faces Feminism," in Boxer and Quataert, Socialist Women, 92; on "letter," see Christine Bard, Les Filles de Marianne: Histoire des féminismes, 1914–1940 (n.p., 1995), 90.

²⁶ Charles Sowerwine, Sisters or Citizens? Women and Socialism in France since 1876 (Cambridge, 1982), 134, 186; see also Sowerwine, Les Femmes et le socialisme (Paris, 1978). Paul Smith, Feminism and the Third Republic: Women's Political and Civil Rights in France, 1918–1945 (Oxford, 1996), 80; Bard, Les Filles de Marianne, 345; Gruber, "French Women in the Crossfire of Class, Sex, Maternity, and Citizenship," in Gruber and Graves, Women and Socialism/Socialism and Women, 279–320, quotation on 283.

²⁷ Henriëtte Roland Holst-Van der Schalk, Een Woord aan de vrouwen der arbeidende klasse naar aanleiding der nat. tentoonstelling van vrouwen-arbeid (Amsterdam, 1898), 19.

²⁸ Maria Grever and Berteke Waaldijk, Transforming the Public Sphere: The Dutch National Exhibition of Women's Labor in 1898, trans. Mischa F. C. Hoyick and Robert E. Chesal (Durham, N.C., 2004), 48–49.

²⁹ Patricia Hilden and Christine Bard offer some insight into the situation in the north of France and the southeast, respectively. Bard suggests that Saumoneau and the party line had some influence at Lyon; Bard, Les Filles de Marianne, 241. Regarding the major textile cities in the north, Hilden states, "In general, the national SFIO's campaign against bourgeois feminism found few echoes in the Nord federation"; Hilden, Working Women and Socialist Politics in France, 1880–1914: A Regional Study (Oxford, 1986), 256. Richard J. Evans, reporting on attitudes among Hamburg pub-goers toward women suffragists, cites some workingmen who, influenced by Zetkin's views, said, "the bourgeois feminists ... are basically in favour of suppressing women workers"; in Evans, Proletarians and Politics: Socialism, Protest and the Working Class in Germany before the First World War (New York, 1990), 165.

³⁰ For an illustrative case of the means through which the German party influenced others in the Second International, see Georges Haupt, L'historien et le mouvement social (Paris, 1980), 151–197.

³¹ See, e.g., the struggle of Anna Kuliscioff; Claire LaVigna, "The Marxist Ambivalence toward Women: Between Socialism and Feminism in the Italian Socialist Party," in Boxer and Quataert, Socialist Women, 146–181.

³² Ute Frevert, Women in German History, 146; I have altered the translation of Frauenrechtlerinnen, substituting the more common usage "women's righters" for "legalists." For a similar decision by Swedish Social Democrats in 1905, see Evans, The Feminists, 169.

³³ Leila J. Rupp, Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women's Movement (Princeton, N.J., 1997), 35. On suffrage as a divisive issue among internationalists, see ibid., 135–139.

³⁴ On shifting views over collaboration, see also Evans, The Feminists, 170–177; on the U.S., see Mari Jo Buhle, Women and American Socialism, 1870–1920 (Urbana, Ill., 1981), 221–229. For Braun, see Meyer, The Feminism and Socialism of Lily Braun, 57–58; for Pelletier, see Sowerwine, Sisters or Citizens? 130; for the Austrian case, see Meyer, The Feminism and Socialism of Lily Braun, 53. Two French historians, Laurence Klejman and Florence Rochefort, assert that the real audience of the French socialist women leaders was male socialists; Klejman and Rochefort, L'Egalité en marche: Le Féminisme sous la Troisième République (Paris, 1989), 215.

³⁵ On China, see Christina Gilmartin, "Gender, Politics, and Patriarchy in China: The Experiences of Early Women Communists, 1920–27," in Sonia Kruks, Rayna Rapp, and Marilyn B. Young, eds., Promissory Notes: Women in the Transition to Socialism (New York, 1989), 101; on Vietnam, see Christine Pelzer White, "Vietnam: War, Socialism, and the Politics of Gender Relations," ibid., 177.

³⁶ Mineke Bosch, "History and Historiography of First-Wave Feminism in the Netherlands, 1860–1922," in Sylvia Paletschek and Bianka Pietrow-Ennker, eds., Women's Emancipation Movements in the Nineteenth Century: A European Perspective (Stanford, Calif., 2004), 65.

³⁷ Rupp, Worlds of Women, 47; see also Karen Offen, European Feminisms, 1700–1950: A Political History (Stanford, Calif., 2000), 386–387.

³⁸ The Woman Question: Selections from the Writings of Karl Marx, Frederick Engels, V. I. Lenin, Joseph Stalin (New York, 1951), 89. Lenin's comment is also translated as "strong, ineradicable line against the bourgeois movement for the `emancipation of women,'" in Lenin, The Emancipation of Women: From the Writings of V. I. Lenin (New York, 1966), 110. For early women's studies syllabi, see Sheila Tobias, ed., Female Studies I (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1970), and Florence Howe, ed., Female Studies II (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1970); for the first women's history course in the first women's studies program, taught by Roberta Salper, see Howe, Female Studies II, 89.

³⁹ Judith Hole and Ellen Levine trace the influence of the left, old and new, through the beginnings of women's liberation in the United States in Rebirth of Feminism (New York, 1971), 114–122. Shulamith Firestone's The Dialectic of Sex, which blazed a meteoric path through the radical women's movement and appeared on many early women's studies course outlines, set out to perform the task left undone by the masters, to apply the dialectic method to the "sex class," women; Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution (New York, 1970). See also the reflective essays in Rachel Blau Duplessis and Ann Snitow, eds., The Feminist Memoir Project: Voices from Women's Liberation (New York, 1998). For England, Sheila Rowbotham has provided a close analysis of the rebirth of feminism among women active in the New Left. See esp. Rowbotham, Promise of a Dream: Remembering the Sixties (London, 2001), and "Appreciating Our Beginnings," in Rowbotham, Threads through Time: Writings in History and Autobiography (London, 1999), 73–83. On "bourgeois character," see Kate Millett, Sexual Politics (Garden City, N.Y., 1970), 84; for "trap," see Robin Morgan, ed., Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women's Liberation Movement (New York, 1970), xxii.

⁴⁰ For Britain, see Barbara Caine, English Feminism, 1780–1980 (Oxford, 1997), 256. For France, see Florence Rochefort, "Les féministes," in Jean-Jacques Becker and Gilles Candar, eds., Histoire des gauches en France, 2 vols., vol. 2: XXe siècle: À l'épreuve de l'histoire (Paris, 2004), 108. For aggressive ridicule, see Elaine Marks and Isabelle de Courtivron, eds., New French Feminisms: An Anthology (Amherst, Mass., 1980), x. On the new feminism in Italy as "genetically linked to the New Left," see Yasmine Ergas, "1968–79—Feminism and the Italian Party System: Women's Politics in a Decade of Turmoil," Comparative Politics 14, no. 3 (April 1982): 253–279, quotation on 256. For a survey that mentions socialist influence on second wave feminism in other European countries, including Greece, the Netherlands, and Spain, see Gisela Kaplan, Contemporary Western European Feminism (New York, 1992).

⁴¹ Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York, 1963). For Friedan's political origins in the "old left," see Daniel Horowitz, Betty Friedan and the Making of "The Feminine Mystique": The American Left, the Cold War, and Modern Feminism (Amherst, Mass., 1998).

⁴² A 1968 strike by factory women helped spur organization by leftist women; see Rowbotham, Threads through Time, 80–81. Mitchell also noted, "The liberation of women remains a normative ideal, an adjunct to socialist theory, not structurally integrated into it ... The family as it exists at present is, in fact, incompatible with the equality of the sexes"; Juliet Mitchell, "Women: The Longest Revolution," New Left Review 40 (November–December 1966): 11–37, quotations on 15, 36. On the need for new theory, see Mitchell, Woman's Estate (New York, 1971), 90–91; for "liberal feminist," see ibid., 66. On the influence of Mitchell and Rowbotham, see, e.g., Anna Coote and Beatrix Campbell, Sweet Freedom: The Struggle for Women's Liberation (Oxford, 1982), 8–9.

⁴³ Sheila Rowbotham, Women, Resistance, and Revolution: A History of Women and Revolution in the Modern World (1972; repr., New York, 1974), quotations on 35, 247. Rowbotham opens with protests by seventeenth-century aristocratic and bourgeois women, in a chapter she titles "Impudent Lasses."

⁴⁴ On "bogey," see Sheila Rowbotham, "Introduction," in The Daughters of Karl Marx: Family Correspondence, 1866–1898, commentary and notes by Olga Meier, trans. and adapted by Faith Evans (New York, 1979), xvii–xl, quotation on xxxv; on "caricatures" and "polarity," see Rowbotham, "The Women's Movement and Organizing for Socialism," in Rowbotham, Lynne Segal, and Hilary Wainwright, eds., Beyond the Fragments: Feminism and the Making of Socialism (London, 1979), 63–64 and 151 n. 19; on conventional stereotype, see Rowbotham, Hidden from History: Rediscovering Women in History from the 17th Century to the Present (1973; repr., New York, 1974), 79.

⁴⁵ Rowbotham reflects on the links between radical history in Britain and the U.S. as well as inspiration drawn from Western Marxist theorists whose work "illuminated aspects of women's oppression which were not part of conventional socialist ways of seeing." See Sheila Rowbotham, "New Entry Points from USA Women's Labour History," in Margaret Walsh, ed., Working Out Gender: Perspectives from Labour History (Aldershot, 1999), 9–28, quotation on 11.

⁴⁶ Julia Swindells and Lisa Jardine, What's Left? Women and Culture in the Labour Movement (London, 1990), 12, 68; emphasis in original. They also state that for adding feminism to Marxist analysis, Mitchell "was promptly excommunicated by the NLR fraternity"; ibid., 70. "Cult of masculinity" is from Beatrix Campbell, Wigan Pier Revisited: Poverty and Politics in the Eighties (London, 1984), 98–99. Joan Wallach Scott also points to the difficulty of including women in the language of class; see "On Language, Gender, and Working-Class History," in Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988), 53–67, esp. 64–65.

⁴⁷ Dorothy E. Smith, Feminism and Marxism: A Place to Begin, a Way to Go (Vancouver, 1977), 33; Sheila Rowbotham, Woman's Consciousness, Man's World (London, 1973), 38. Statements that both helped launch the new feminism and connected it to Marxism grew out of women's protests at meetings of SDS (Students for a Democratic Society), including widely distributed and much-anthologized essays by Roxanne Dunbar, "Female Liberation as the Basis for Socialist Revolution" (1968), and Margaret Benston, "The Political Economy of Women's Liberation" (1969). See also Lydia Sargent, ed., Women and Revolution: A Discussion of the Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism (Boston, 1981); Rowbotham, "Appreciating Our Beginnings," in Rowbotham, Threads through Time, 73–83; and Rowbotham, Promise of a Dream. A historian of the American left, James Weinstein, states, "Initially, the women's movement saw itself as entirely outside of, or even opposed to, the organized socialist movement, largely because socialist parties and groups had traditionally seen `the woman question' as secondary to trade union or political electoral activity, but also because of the social conservatism of much of the socialist movement. Radical feminism grew up in opposition to the socialist movement in much the same way as black cultural nationalism emerged in reaction to the politics and social relations of the white left." Weinstein, Ambiguous Legacy: The Left in American Politics (New York, 1975), 165.

⁴⁸ For a summary of socialist-feminist activism in the U.S., see Red Apple Collective, "Socialist-Feminist Women's Unions: Past and Present," Socialist Review 38 (March–April 1978): 37–57.

⁴⁹ The literature is huge. See, e.g., Annette Kuhn and AnnMarie Wolpe, eds., Feminism and Materialism: Women and Modes of Production (London, 1978); Batya Weinbaum, The Curious Courtship of Women's Liberation and Socialism (Boston, 1978); Zillah R. Eisenstein, ed., Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case for Socialist Feminism (New York, 1979); Michèle Barrett, Women's Oppression Today: Problems in Marxist Feminist Analysis (London, 1980); Cambridge Women's Studies Group, Women in Society: Interdisciplinary Essays (London, 1981); Sargent, Women and Revolution. On "polemicizing," see Mary-Alice Waters, Feminism and the Marxist Movement (New York, 1972), 35. On "dissatisfied," see Charnie Guettel, Marxism and Feminism (Toronto, 1974), 1. On "instruments," see Marlene Dixon, "Left-Wing Anti-Feminism: A Revisionist Disorder," Synthesis: A Journal of Marxist-Leninist Debate 1, no. 4 (Spring 1977): 31–43, quotation on 33. Socialist-feminists "disengaged from feminism," Beatrix Campbell later commented; Michèle Barrett, Beatrix Campbell, Anne Phillips, Angela Weir, and Elizabeth Wilson, "Feminism and Class Politics: A Round-Table Discussion," Feminist Review 23 (Summer 1986), 16.

⁵⁰ Lise Vogel, Marxism and the Oppression of Women: Toward a Unitary Theory (New Brunswick, N.J., 1983), 108–109; Evans, Proletarians and Politics, 96.

⁵¹ At San Diego State University, where the first integrated program in women's studies was launched in 1970, the first chair offered the job was the Marxist Marlene Dixon, who declined but personally solicited another socialist feminist, Roberta Salper, who accepted. The initial curriculum included a course entitled "Status of Women under Various Economic Systems" that highlighted communist societies. But after "three years of struggle," working "inside the beast" (their term for the university), the early San Diego State women's studies faculty asked themselves whether it was "a waste of our time ... to be teaching and working with petty bourgeois students." The following year they decided it was, and, embattled with the administration over governance issues, they resigned en masse. For Dixon and Salper, see Roberta Salper, "Introduction," in Salper, ed., Female Liberation: History and Current Politics (New York, 1972), 22. On early San Diego State women's studies, see Women's Studies Program: Three Years of Struggle (San Diego, Calif., 1973), and Women's Studies Board, San Diego State College, Women's Studies and Socialist Feminism (San Diego, Calif., 1974); also Marilyn Jacoby Boxer, When Women Ask the Questions: Creating Women's Studies in America (Baltimore, Md., 1998), 164–166. On conflicts in women's studies, see also Ellen Messer-Davidow, Disciplining Feminism: From Social Action to Academic Discourse (Durham, N.C., 2002).

⁵² For course outlines, see Tobias, Female Studies I, and Howe, Female Studies II. Roxanne Dunbar's "Female Liberation as the Basis for Social Revolution," written early in 1969 as a response to an SDS resolution, was reprinted in Morgan, ed., Sisterhood Is Powerful, 477–492, which was a popular selection among academic feminists. Margaret Benston's "The Political Economy of Women's Liberation" (brochure, Boston, n.d.; reprinted from Monthly Review, September 1969) included writings from Lenin as an appendix.

⁵³ Michèle Barrett and Anne Phillips, "Introduction," in Barrett and Phillips, eds., Destabilizing Theory: Contemporary Feminist Debates (Stanford, Calif., 1992), 2–3, emphases in original. On "Big Three," see Mary Maynard, "Beyond the `Big Three': The Development of Feminist Theory in the 1990's," Women's History Review 4, no. 3 (1995): 259–281. As feminist theorist Donna J. Haraway points out, "Any ... taxonomy is a re-inscription of history"; Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (New York, 1991), 159–160.

⁵⁴ Zillah Eisenstein, "Developing a Theory of Capitalist Patriarchy and Socialist Feminism," in Eisenstein, Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case for Socialist Feminism, 5–40, quotation on 38 n. 27; The Combahee River Collective, "A Black Feminist Statement," in Gloria T. Hull, Patricia Bell Scott, and Barbara Smith, eds., But Some of Us Are Brave (Old Westbury, N.Y., 1982), 13–22, quotation on 20; Angela Y. Davis, "Foreword," in Foner, Clara Zetkin, 11.

⁵⁵ For a sample "statement," see the following: "History—least of all labour history—is not an abstract intellectual pursuit. It is also a political statement, a personal choice about the past ... It is to Labour History's credit that it continues to provide a forum for `activist' as well as academic, the young and innovative as well as the privileged and professional elite"; "Introduction," special issue, Women, Work and the Labour Movement in Australia and Aotearoa/New Zealand, ed. Raelene Frances and Bruce Scates, Labour History 61 (November 1991): x. For Woolf, see Virginia Woolf, Three Guineas (San Diego, 1938), 177 n. 13.

⁵⁶ For one notable activist's memory of this concern, see the interview with Jane Fonda by Robin Morgan in Ms. 16, no. 1 (Winter 2006): 36.

⁵⁷ Mme. Ghénia Avril de Sainte-Croix (writing as "Savioz"), "L'Indépendance économique de la femme," L'Humanité, January 17, 1907; she was co-founder of the National Council of French Women, author of Le Féminisme (Paris, 1907), and an international feminist activist. I thank Karen Offen for this reference; on Sainte-Croix, see Offen, "'La plus grande féministe de France': Mais qui est donc Madame Avril de Sainte-Croix?" Archives du féminisme, Bulletin no. 9 (December 2005): 46–54.

⁵⁸ Among the exceptions are G. D. H. Cole, who includes a six-page chapter on "Socialism and the Rights of Women, 1914–1931" in Cole, A History of Socialist Thought, vol. 4, pt. 2: Communism and Social Democracy, 1914–1931 (London, 1958), 839–845, and a chapter on Flora Tristan in vol. 1: Socialist Thought: The Forerunners, 1789–1850 (London, 1953), 183–188; and George Lichtheim, who offers a brief discussion of Tristan as the "first socialist to have lived the connection between the emancipation of her sex and the ending of wage slavery," in Lichtheim, The Origins of Socialism (New York, 1969), 69.

⁵⁹ The term is borrowed from Sonya Rose, "Class Formation." In Rose's view, "the `quintessential worker problem' ... has blinded historians from recognizing how both gender and race have been constitutive of class identities"; 139, emphasis in original. Although her focus is not on women, Carole Biewener's "Class and Socialist Politics in France," Review of Radical Political Economics 19, no. 2 (1987): 61–76, is useful for understanding how basic class concepts served to eclipse women's roles as workers.

⁶⁰ Campbell, Wigan Pier Revisited, 97.

⁶¹ Michelle Perrot, "Twenty Years of Women's History in France: Preface to the English Edition," in Perrot, ed., Writing Women's History, trans. Felicia Pheasant (1984; repr., Oxford, 1992), viii–ix. See also the interview with Perrot about resistance to women's history by gauchistes in Radical History Review 37 (1987): 27–38.

⁶² Cf. Linda Harriet Edmondson's 1984 comment that most of the research on women in tsarist Russia had thus far focused on revolutionaries, with little attention given to the "bourgeois feminists," in Edmondson, Feminism in Russia, x.

⁶³ Rowbotham, Women, Resistance, and Revolution.

⁶⁴ Thönnessen, The Emancipation of Women, 10. Thönnessen sees the socialist turn to reformism, which he says favored "proletarian anti-feminism," as responsible for the demise of German socialism; ibid., 164–165.

⁶⁵ Amy Hackett, "The German Women's Movement and Suffrage, 1890–1914: A Study of National Feminism," in Robert J. Bezucha, ed., Modern European Social History (Lexington, Mass., 1972), quotations on 355, 356.

⁶⁶ For Ph.D. dissertations, see Karen Honeycutt, "Clara Zetkin: A Left-Wing Socialist and Feminist in Wilhelmian Germany" (Columbia University, 1975); Amy K. Hackett, "The Politics of Feminism in Wilhelmine Germany, 1890–1918" (Columbia University, 1976); and Boxer, "Socialism Faces Feminism in France, 1879–1913." Linda Edmondson lists eight dissertations on women in Russia between 1968 and 1981, all but one on women in radical movements; Edmondson, Feminism in Russia, 177.

⁶⁷ Ann J. Lane, "Women in Society: A Critique of Frederick Engels," in Berenice A. Carroll, ed., Liberating Women's History: Theoretical and Critical Essays (Urbana, Ill., 1976), 4–25; and Amy Hackett, "Feminism and Liberalism in Wilhelmine Germany, 1890–1918," ibid., 127–136. It is worth noting that Lane, in her essay dating from 1972, criticizes the absence of women workers in E. P. Thompson's revisionist work. For criticism of Draper's and Lipow's stance on feminism, see Rowbotham, Segal, and Wainwright, Beyond the Fragments, 152 n. 27.

⁶⁸ Draper and Lipow, "Marxist Women versus Bourgeois Feminism," 180, 189. Draper and Lipow trace the split back to a struggle for primacy within the German workers' movement between Lassalleans and Marxists; ibid., 182–183.

⁶⁹ Richard J. Evans, "Bourgeois Feminists and Women Socialists in Germany, 1894–1914: Lost Opportunity or Inevitable Conflict?" Women's Studies International Quarterly 3 (1980): 355–376, quotation on 359. Evans titled chapter 2 of his Comrades and Sisters "The Impossible Alliance." Reasons for the vote included not unfounded fears of repression by police: in 1894, a women's "educational club" in Nuremberg was dissolved for sending a representative to a socialist meeting; see Quataert, "Feminist Tactics," 51.

⁷⁰ See Sowerwine, Sisters or Citizens? 26–28; Sowerwine, "The Socialist Women's Movement from 1850 to 1940," in Renate Bridenthal, Claudia Koonz, and Susan Stuard, eds., Becoming Visible: Women in European History, 2nd ed. (Boston, 1987), 399–426, esp. 405–406; Boxer, "Socialism Faces Feminism in France, 1879–1913," 103–113. Claire Moses follows Sowerwine on this, in Moses, French Feminism in the Nineteenth Century (Albany, N.Y., 1984), 223–224. On factionalism among French feminists, see Wynona H. Wilkins, "The Paris International Feminist Congress of 1896 and Its French Antecedents," North Dakota Quarterly 43, no. 4 (Autumn 1975): 5–28. For "Auclert's biographer," see Steven C. Hause, Hubertine Auclert: The French Suffragette (New Haven, Conn., 1987), 67.

⁷¹ Robert Stuart, "'Calm, with a Grave and Serious Temperament, Rather Male': French Marxism, Gender and Feminism, 1882–1905," International Review of Social History 41, pt. 1 (April 1996): 57–82, quotations on 76, 77.

⁷² Sowerwine, Sisters or Citizens? 75–77. For the compte-rendu, see Congrès international de la condition & des droits des femmes tenu les 5, 6, 7 et 8 septembre 1900 (Paris, 1901), 73–79. The "bourgeois feminist" leader Maria Pognon reported that after the altercation, working women delegates to the conference stated their appreciation for her help over the previous year, and offered her their support. See Pognon, "Expliquons-nous," La Petite République, September 18, 1900, 1. Durand and Pognon both joined socialists to call for state support of mothers, unwed and married; Anne Cova, "French Feminism and Maternity: Theories and Politics, 1890–1918," in Pat Thane and Gisela Bock, eds., Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States, 1880s–1950s (London, 1991), 119–137, esp. 123–125. For a women's movement that viewed socialism as a "social poison," see Nancy R. Reagin, A German Women's Movement: Class and Gender in Hanover, 1880–1933 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), quotation on 73.

⁷³ On Holland, see Grever and Waaldijk, Transforming the Public Sphere, 195–200. On Braun, see Meyer, The Feminism and Socialism of Lily Braun, quotations on 63, 64, and 142. Evans also follows Sowerwine on this; Evans, Comrades and Sisters, 40. Stites states that servants constituted a "blind spot" for feminists; Stites, The Women's Liberation Movement, 223. On Russia, see Rose Glickman, Russian Factory Women: Workplace and Society, 1880–1914 (Berkeley, Calif., 1984), 243–244.

⁷⁴ Boxer and Quataert, Socialist Women, 5–8. Exceptional work that did examine women's class status included Gerda Lerner, "The Lady and the Mill Girl: Changes in the Status of Women in the Age of Jackson," Midcontinent American Studies Journal 10, no. 1 (Spring 1969): 5–15, and two essays in Carroll, Liberating Women's History: Hilda Smith, "Feminism and the Methodology of Women's History," 368–384, and Sheila Ryan Johansson, "'Herstory' as History: A New Field or Another Fad?" 400–430.

⁷⁵ Sowerwine writes, "Even in the countries where the socialist women's movement was weakest, it reached more women than the bourgeois feminists ever hoped to reach"; Sowerwine, "The Socialist Women's Movement," 421. If doubtful in other cases as well, this statement wholly ignores mass religious and patriotic women's movements that attracted large numbers in several countries; for the latter in Germany, see Frevert, Women in German History, 137. Picq writes that "socialist women abandoned working women"; Picq, "'Bourgeois Feminism' in France," 341. She refers to the infamous Couriau affair, in which French printers ejected a member for allowing his (union-qualified) wife to work in the trade, and only "bourgeois feminists" supported her protest.

⁷⁶ Karen Offen, "Exploring the Sexual Politics of Republican Nationalism," in Robert Tombs, ed., Nationhood and Nationalism in France: From Boulangism to the Great War, 1889–1918 (London, 1991), 195–205; Carolyn J. Eichner, Surmounting the Barricades: Women in the Paris Commune (Bloomington, Ind., 2004), 5, 9–10, 26, 61; Florence Rochefort, "The French Feminist Movement and Republicanism, 1868–1914," in Paletschek and Pietrow-Ennker, Women's Emancipation Movements, quotation on 78; Gisela Bock, Women in European History, trans. Allison Brown (Oxford, 2002), 119; Jean H. Quataert, Staging Philanthropy: Patriotic Women and the National Imagination in Dynastic Germany, 1813–1916 (Ann Arbor, Mich., 2001), 82.

⁷⁷ Claire Moses, "Debating the Present, Writing the Past: `Feminism' in French History and Historiography," Radical History Review 52 (1979): 79–94, quotation on 84. In Moses's view, the grandmothers evoked "the National Woman's Party (suspect for its relationship to the Republican Party)," and the mothers, the members of the "National Organization for Women (suspect for its relationship to the Democratic Party)."

⁷⁸ Sally Alexander, "Women, Class and Sexual Differences," History Workshop Journal 17 (Spring 1984): 125–149, quotation on 127.

⁷⁹ Evans, Comrades and Sisters, 59. For women in the interwar French socialist party as "neither comrades nor sisters," see Gruber, "French Women in the Crossfire," 280.

⁸⁰ Lopes and Roth, Men's Feminism, 45, 222.

⁸¹ See, e.g., Jeanne-Victoire [Jeanne Deroin], "Call to Women," La Femme libre 1, no. 1 (1832), in Bell and Offen, Women, the Family, and Freedom, vol. 1: 1750–1880, 146–147; also Moses, French Feminism in the Nineteenth Century, 136–142; Eichner, Surmounting the Barricades, 2, 24, 69–95. Naomi J. Andrews demonstrates how "gender shaped socialism's definition of the good society" in the July Monarchy; Andrews, Socialism's Muse: Gender in the Intellectual Landscape of French Romantic Socialism (Lanham, Md., 2006), xvii.

⁸² On working-class women sympathetic to "bourgeois feminism" such as Jeanne Bouvier and Henriette Coulmy, see Bard, Les Filles de Marianne, esp. 184–186. On cross-class efforts, see, e.g., Frevert, Women in German History, 100–103. On opposition to Zetkin in the SPD, see Strain, "Feminism and Political Radicalism," 140–142, 208. On links between welfare work and the emergence of feminism, see Bock, Women in European History, 111–116.

⁸³ On motherhood as an issue crossing "class" lines, see Ann Taylor Allen, Feminism and Motherhood in Western Europe, 1890–1970: The Maternal Dilemma (New York, 2005); for "parallel wars," see Ida Blom, "Modernity and the Norwegian Women's Movement from the 1880s to 1914: Changes and Continuities," in Paletschek and Pietrow-Ennker, Women's Emancipation Movements, 125–151, quotation on 138.

⁸⁴ The term "litmus test" is used by Moses, "Debating the Present," 84, and by Sheila Rowbotham in Women in Movement: Feminism and Social Action (New York, 1992), 14. The wrong assumption appears in Ingrun Lafleur, "Five Socialist Women: Traditionalist Conflicts and Socialist Visions in Austria, 1893–1934," in Boxer and Quataert, Socialist Women, 215–248, esp. 237. For the comparative study, see Ulla Wikander, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Jane Lewis, eds., Protecting Women: Labor Legislation in Europe, the United States, and Australia, 1880–1920 (Urbana, Ill., 1995). In Scandinavia, opposition from trade union women who feared loss of work sometimes sufficed to quash proposals for restrictions; ibid., 215, 236–237, 247–248, 273–274. For a thoughtful comparative discussion of the controversy and its relation to citizenship and maternalism, see Bock, Women in European History, 158–173.

⁸⁵ Class issues also arose in Latin America, for example, within the suffrage movement in Uruguay. Christine Ehrick suggests, however, that the familiar European/North American model does not really suit the Latin American context. See Ehrick, "Madrinas and Missionaries: Uruguay and the Pan-American Women's Movement," Gender and History 10, no. 3 (November 1998): 406–424.

⁸⁶ See Ida Blom, "Prelude to Welfare States: Introduction," in Gruber and Graves, Women and Socialism, 415–420; Frangeur, "Socialist Democrats and the Woman Question in Sweden," and Hilda Romer Christensen, "Socialist Feminists and Feminist Socialists in Denmark, 1920–1940," ibid., 478–503. These studies confirm Eley's point regarding the influence of relationships between liberal and socialist parties on degrees of collaboration among women's groups.

⁸⁷ Martha Bohachevsky-Chomiak, Feminists Despite Themselves: Women in Ukrainian Community Life, 1884–1939 (Edmonton, 1988), 80, and "Feminism in Ukrainian History," Journal of Ukrainian Studies 7, no. 1 (Spring 1982): 16–30, esp. 20. See also Bohachevsky-Chomiak, "Socialism and Feminism: The First Stages of Women's Organizations in the Eastern Part of the Austrian Empire," in Tora Yedlin, ed., Women in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (New York, 1980), 44–64.

⁸⁸ Judith Szapor, "Sisters or Foes: The Shifting Front Lines of the Hungarian Women's Movements, 1896–1918," in Paletschek and Pietrow-Ennker, Women's Emancipation Movements, 189–205, quotations on 199; Andrea Petö, "Hungarian Women in Politics," in Joan W. Scott, Cora Kaplan, and Debra Keates, eds., Transitions, Environments, Translations: Feminism in International Politics (New York, 1997), 153–161, quotation on 159.

⁸⁹ On the split into "broad" and "narrow" socialism, see Krassimira Daskalova, "Bulgarian Women in Movements, Laws, Discourses (1840s–1940s)," Bulgarian Historical Review 27, no. 1–2 (1999): 180–196, esp. 186–188; on stigma and stereotype, see Daskalova, "The Women's Movement in Bulgaria after Communism," in Scott, Kaplan, and Keates, Transitions, Environments, Translations, 162–175, quotations on 163 and 170.

⁹⁰ Jill M. Bystydzienski, "The Feminist Movement in Poland: Why So Slow?" Women's Studies International Forum 24, no. 5 (2001): 501–511, quotation on 503.

⁹¹ Wang Zheng, Women in the Chinese Enlightenment: Oral and Textual Histories (Berkeley, Calif., 1999). The book is based on interviews with five members of the first generation of Chinese feminist activists. For transliterations and definitions of "feminism," see ibid., esp. 7–9, 133–134, 339–342; also Sasha Su-Ling Welland, "What Women Will Have Been: Reassessing Feminist Cultural Production in China—A Review Essay," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 31, no. 4 (Summer 2006): 949. Wang now refers to party work among women in Shanghai as "state feminism"; Wang, "'State Feminism'? Gender and Socialist State Formation in Maoist China," Feminist Studies 31, no. 3 (Fall 2005): 519–551.

⁹² Kumari Jayawardena, "Some Thoughts on the Left and the `Woman Question' in South Asia," in Kruks, Rapp, and Young, Promissory Notes, 359–366, quotation on 363.

⁹³ Kruks, Rapp, and Young, "Introduction," ibid., 7–12, quotation on 9.

⁹⁴ On "capitulation," see Elizabeth Waters, "In the Shadow of the Comintern: The Communist Women's Movement, 1920–43," ibid., 29–56, quotation on 51; on "knuckled under," see Christina Gilmartin, "Gender, Politics, and Patriarchy in China: The Experiences of Early Women Communists, 1920–27," ibid., 82–105, quotation on 101; on individualism and traditional roles, see Christine Pelzer White, "Vietnam: War, Socialism, and the Politics of Gender Relations, " ibid., 172–192, and Delia D. Aguilar, "Third World Revolution and First World Feminism: Toward a Dialogue," ibid., 338–344.

⁹⁵ Kathleen Canning distinguishes usefully between class as an analytic concept and as "postulated identity or ideology"; Canning, "Gender and the Politics of Class Formation: Rethinking German Labor History," AHR 97, no. 3 (June 1992): 736–768, quotation on 767. Women, argues Diane P. Koenker, faced "exclusion from the male world of class"; see her "Men against Women on the Shop Floor in Early Soviet Russia: Gender and Class in the Socialist Workplace," AHR 100, no. 5 (December 1995): 1438–1464, quotation on 1463. On masculine identity and class formation, see also Ava Baron, "On Looking at Men: Masculinity and the Making of a Gendered Working-Class History," in Ann-Louise Shapiro, ed., Feminists Revision History (New Brunswick, N.J., 1994), 146–171.

⁹⁶ Florence Rochefort, "The French Feminist Movement and Republicanism, 1868–1914," in Paletschek and Pietrow-Ennker, Women's Emancipation Movements, 77–101, quotation on 86.

⁹⁷ This was true especially of Bulgarian and Polish women; Francisca de Haan, Krassimira Daskalova, and Anna Loufti, "Introduction," in de Haan, Daskalova, and Loufti, Biographical Dictionary of Women's Movements and Feminisms, 9.

⁹⁸ The journalist, Ida Heijermans, was the sister of a well-known socialist; Grever and Waaldijk, Transforming the Public Sphere, 202.

⁹⁹ Nelly Roussel, Quelques Lances rompues pour nos libertés (Paris, 1910), 48.

¹⁰⁰ Jeanne Bouvier, Mes mémoires; or, 59 Years of the Industrial, Social, and Intellectual Activity of a Workingwoman (Paris, 1983), 243–244, also quoted in Bard, Les Filles de Marianne, 185; on teachers, ibid. On the role of intellectuals in the Second International, see Patricia van der Esch, La Deuxième Internationale, 1889–1923 (Paris, 1957), 35–36. For weaknesses in the Marxist critique of the bourgeoisie, see Robert Stuart, Marxism at Work: Ideology, Class and French Socialism during the Third Republic (Cambridge, 1992). Stuart, on the other hand, credits the POF with identifying women clerks as "proletarian"; Stuart, "Gendered Labour in the Ideological Discourse of French Marxism: The Parti Ouvrier Français, 1882–1905," Gender and History 9, no. 1 (April 1997): 115.

¹⁰¹ Evans cites a prewar survey in Hamburg that found only 1,601 of 11,684 women members engaged in paid employment; Richard J. Evans, "Politics and the Family: Social Democracy and the Working-Class Family in Theory and Practice before 1914," in Richard J. Evans and W. R. Lee, eds., The German Family: Essays on the Social History of the Family in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Germany (London, 1981), 266. Mary Nash cites an occupational survey of a 1926–1927 Spanish socialist women's group that found only 1 of 527 members working in an industrial occupation; Nash, "'Ideals of Redemption': Socialism and Women on the Left in Spain," in Gruber and Graves, Women and Socialism, 350–351. Of the approximately 1,000 members of the Bulgarian social democratic women's organization in 1922, 457 were housewives, 212 were "workers," 56 were "craftsmen," and about 75 were employed in clerical and professional occupations; Krassimira Daskalova, "Bulgarian Women's Movements (1850s–1940s)," in Edith Saurer, Margaareth Lanzinger, and Elisabeth Frysak, eds., Women's Movements, Networks and Debates in Post-Communist Countries in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Weimar, 2006), 413–437. On wives, for France, see Claude Willard, Les Guesdistes: Le mouvement socialiste en France, 1893–1905 (Paris, 1965), 362 n. 1; for Germany, see Evans, Comrades and Sisters, 61, and Quataert, Reluctant Feminists, 19; for the Netherlands, see Ulla Jansz, "Gender and Democratic Socialism in the Netherlands," in Gruber and Graves, Women and Socialism, 217; for Spain, see Nash, "Ideals of Redemption," 350; for Sweden, see Frangeur, "Social Democrats and the Woman Question," 428. For the British suffrage movement, see Olive Banks, Becoming a Feminist: The Social Origins of "First Wave" Feminism (Brighton, 1986), 11, 16; and Jiang Park, "The British Suffrage Activists of 1913: An Analysis," Past and Present 120 (August 1988): 147–162, esp. 157, 161. For the Netherlands, see Myriam Everard, "Het burgerlijk feminisme van de eerste golf: Annette Versluys-Poelman en haar kring," in Marjan Schwegman, Ulla Jansz, et al., eds., Op het Strijdtoneel van de Politiek: Twaalfdejaarboek voor vrouwengeschiedinis (Nijmegen, 1991), 106–137.

¹⁰² Sowerwine states that "the socialist women, if they were not so much of the working classes as they claimed, were nonetheless from class backgrounds very different from those of the feminists"; Sisters or Citizens? 186. Picq also challenges Sowerwine on this point; Picq, "'Bourgeois Feminism' in France," 330. Geoff Eley and Keith Nield point out that "socialist parties always contained a far richer sociology than a simple class-political argument would imply"; Eley and Nield, "Farewell to the Working Class?" International Labor and Working-Class History 57 (Spring 2000): 1–30, quotation on 20.

¹⁰³ On identity politics, see Quataert, "Socialisms, Feminisms, and Agency: A Long View," Journal of Modern History 73 (September 2001): 603–616, quotation on 614.

¹⁰⁴ On rejection of feminism in Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe after the fall of communism, see Tanya Renne, ed., Ana's Land: Sisterhood in Eastern Europe (Boulder, Colo., 1997), and Barbara Einhorn, "An Allergy to Feminism: Women's Movements Before and After 1989," chap. 6 in Einhorn, Cinderella Goes to Market: Citizenship, Gender and Women's Movements in East Central Europe (London, 1993). "Distaste for feminism is about the only thing in which there is great continuity between communism and capitalism," states Lynn Turgeon; Turgeon, "Afterword," in Valentine M. Moghadam, ed., Democratic Reform and the Position of Women in Transitional Economies (Oxford, 1993), 357.

¹⁰⁵ Sylvia Paletschek and Bianka Pietrow-Ennker, "Women's Emancipation Movements in Europe in the Long Nineteenth Century: Conclusions," in Paletschek and Pietrow-Ennker, Women's Emancipation Movements, 301–333, quotation on 326. See also Virginia Sapiro, "A Woman's Struggle for a Language of Enlightenment and Virtue: Mary Wollstonecraft and Enlightenment `Feminism,'" in Tjitske Akkerman and Siep Stuurman, eds., Perspectives on Feminist Political Thought in European History from the Middle Ages to the Present (London, 1998), 122–123; and Ulla Jansz, "Women or Workers? The 1889 Labor Law and the Debate on Protective Legislation in the Netherlands," in Wikander, Kessler-Harris, and Lewis, Protecting Women, 189.

¹⁰⁶ Charles Sowerwine, "Socialist Women's Movement," in Bridenthal, Stuard, and Wiesner, Becoming Visible, 3rd ed., 383–384.

¹⁰⁷ Offen, European Feminisms, 11. Olive Banks also sees the effects of socialism on feminism as "quite profound" and finds "the decline of `first-wave' feminism" in Britain to have been "in part at least a consequence of its alliance with socialism"; Banks, Becoming a Feminist, 105, 160. Richard Evans blames divisions within the German women's movement for its failure to achieve a range of early-twentieth-century feminist goals, as well as for losing "the biggest battle of all—against the Nazis ... almost without a shot being fired"; Evans, "Bourgeois Feminists and Women Socialists," 356.

¹⁰⁸ Eley, Forging Democracy, 113. Eley points out that feminism "brings the principle of democracy to the center of the private sphere"; see Geoff Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures: Placing Habermas in the Nineteenth Century," in Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley, and Sherry B. Ortner, eds., Culture/Power/History: A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory (Princeton, N.J., 1994), 318.

¹⁰⁹ Cf. Robert Stuart's opinion that "[t]he vexed relationship between gender and class, between feminists and socialists, has shaped both the rise and fall of socialism's challenge to capital—the greatest ideological drama of our epoch"; Stuart, "Whores and Angels," 339.

¹¹⁰ Developing a different, women-oriented framework is one of the goals of an excellent recent study of socialism and feminism in England; see June Hannam and Karen Hunt, Socialist Women: Britain, 1880s to 1920s (London, 2002), esp. 202–206. For another recent study showing how complex, fluid, and situational the relationships were, see Annmarie Hughes, "Fragmented Feminists? The Influence of Class and Political Identity in Relations between the Glasgow and West of Scotland Suffrage Society and the Independent Labour Party in the West of Scotland, c. 1919–1932," Women's History Review 14, no. 1 (2005): 7–31.

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