| Book Review | The American Historical Review, 111.4

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| Book Review | The American Historical Review, 111.4 | The History Cooperative

Book Review

Canada and the United States

Martha Gardner. The Qualities of a Citizen: Women, Immigration, and Citizenship, 1870–1965. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2005. Pp. viii, 271. $35.00.
In this book, Martha Gardner begins with the premise that gender and race were centrally important to how U.S. immigration and naturalization laws were applied to women from 1870 to 1965. While many historians before Gardner have made similar arguments, her study stands out in its comprehensive analysis of both gender and race across a broad range of immigration policies and immigrant groups.	1
Gardner's primary argument is threefold. First, she argues that immigration and naturalization laws created a "system of belonging and not belonging" (p. 3). Where immigrant women fit within this system was defined by their work, sexuality, roles in the family, and race. Second, Gardner points out that immigration and naturalization laws played different but complementary roles that reinforced each other. Immigration laws that determined not only who could enter but under what conditions, when, and where "protected a racially and sexually segmented labor force and tied women's role in the nation to their domestic responsibilities in the American home" (p. 3). Naturalization laws defined the "civic rights of aliens, immigrants, residents, and nationals," and in doing so, they "tied race and gender to shifting understandings of the significance of moral character, family responsibility, and personal independence to citizenship" (p. 3). Third, Gardner emphasizes that immigrants, returning citizens, and would-be Americans contested the law, "flexed" it when they could, and "broke it when they felt they must" in order to enter the country or become members of the nation. U.S. ports of entry were sites of contestation where the meanings and application of immigration law were challenged and reinterpreted by a number of interested parties, including women immigrants, immigration officials, federal judges, and social service providers.	. . .

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